Lake management in Italy: the implications of the Water Framework Directive

This paper constitutes the first consideration of the implications of the lake management in Italy arising from the requirements of the Water Framework Directive (WFD), in comparison to the provisions of existing national legislation. As a matter of fact, the Italian decrees anticipated the principles of the WFD and have substantially modified the legislation in the field of water in Italy. Important changes were introduced, both in the monitoring systems and in the classification methods for surface waters. The environmental quality status will be determined not only by monitoring the aqueous matrix, but also the sediment and the biota. The new WFD is the major piece of European Union (EU) legislation with environment at its core; it will guide the efforts for attaining a sustainable aquatic environment in the years to come. In the WFD one can see elements from all the different forces that guided the reform of EU water policy: environmental protection, deregulation and subsidiarity. Moreover, elements of the economic instruments approach (introduction of the cost recovery principle), quantitative concerns (setting of minimum flow objectives for rivers and abstraction limits for ground waters) and the quest for integration (river basin management with representation of all stakeholders) are all reflected in the WFD. The paper summarizes the present condition of the most important lakes in the Italian lake district and also highlights the case of Lake Varese, representing a unique case of lake management in Italy. Preliminary results show that there are very few examples dealing with the elements thought appropriate to lake water assessment as required by the WFD. The application of the objectives of the type specified is a largely unknown issue.     

Implementing the EU Water Framework Directive: Experiences of Participatory Planning in the Ribble Basin,North West England

Abstract

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) is potentially the most significant piece of water management legislation to be developed by the European Union (EU) in the last forty years. Whilst water legislation is already regarded by many people as the ‘gold plating’ of EU environmental policy, many of the previous regulations and policies have focussed on specific point and non-point source water quality problems and have stipulated stringent standards to be achieved within specified time limits. In sharp contrast, the WFD aims to establish a planning and management framework for sustainable use of water and the ecological restoration of entire river systems, many of which do not fit neatly within the political or administrative boundaries of the Member States. Public participation in planning and management decisions is a key aspect of the WFD. This paper describes the specific requirements of the WFD for public participation and examines their implementation in the Ribble basin in North West England. The Ribble is part of a EU river basin network designed to test the WFD implementation guidelines issued by the European Commission. Particular challenges associated with engaging stakeholders in WFD implementation are highlighted and recommendations for future practice are offered.     

Potential Significance of the EU Water Framework Directive to China

The European Union Water Framework Directive (EU WFD) is a unique piece of legislation, which may be of great significance to on-going reforms of the water sector in China. First and foremost it unites 27 European member states behind a common goal, which is “to achieve good chemical and ecological status” of all water bodies across the EU. Other significant characteristics of the EU WFD are that (1) it sets a clear timeframe with a number of time-bound actions for member states to achieve the goal, but leaves it to member states to achieve this goal in a decentralised process, which makes allowance for the different socio-economic conditions, (2) it defines the river basin as the management unit for water thus departing with the traditional fragmented management by administrative units and it appoints a single competent authority for water management within each river basin, thus facilitating resolution of sector conflicts, (3) it requires a financial and economic analysis of the costs of implementing the EU WFD to enable decision makers to assess whether the required improvements are affordable to government and to the population within the river basin, and (4) it requires a structured process for information and consultation with stakeholders and the public throughout the planning and implementation process.     

Welfare Improvisation from the Receiving Waters of Urban Wastewater Systems in the Context of the Water Framework Directive

The compliance of wastewater authorities with the Water Framework Directive (WFD, 2000/60/EC) although may highly contribute to a “good” ecological status in aquatic ecosystems, is alleged to require disproportionally high costs in relevance to the anticipated benefits. This is mainly due to the limited yet research in the assessment of the economic welfare derived by the compliance with the WFD. In this light, the direct and indirect economic benefits emerged by the attaining of WFD are investigated. The wastewater treatment plant of Athens (Greece) is demonstrated as a comprehensive pilot case.     

Evaluation of river basin restoration options by the application of the Water Framework Directive Explorer in the Zwalm River basin (Flanders,Belgium)

Water managers and researchers strive towards the same objective: the improvement of the quality status of water bodies. However, there is still a gap between the results of academic studies on water systems and the information currently used in water management. The Water Framework Directive (WFD)‐Explorer, a modular toolbox which supports integrated water management in a river basin, attempts to bridge this gap. The toolbox analyses the impact of different restoration measures on river ecology based on expert rules embedded in this simulation environment. The strengths and weaknesses of the toolbox have been tested on the Zwalm River basin in Flanders, Belgium. The ecological status of streams in the basin spans the whole range of nearly pristine headwaters to severely impacted river stretches further downstream. Considering the key bottlenecks in the Zwalm basin and the user‐driven ecological status objectives, several water quality and physical habitat restoration options have been proposed to meet the European Water Framework Directive goals. The positive impact of restoration measures on the ecological quality ratio (EQR) for macroinvertebrates appeared to be the highest for measures affecting the nutrient inflows and thus chemical water body characteristics. However, the spatial scale on which the WFD‐Explorer modelled the impact of physical habitat restoration may have been too coarse to generate reliable results concerning such restoration measures. Hence, the combination of the WFD‐Explorer results with those of more detailed studies on physical habitat restoration impacts might be a promising approach to reliably support decision‐making implementation of the WFD. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

WFD and agriculture activity of the EU: first linkages between the CAP and the WFD at EU level.

Within the "WFD and agriculture activity" both communities agreed to co-operate during implementation of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) and further development of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) at EU, Commission and the Member States levels. In intensive discussions including two congresses and biannual working group meetings, seven information reports were produced. Rural Development programmes are unanimously considered to be very powerful instrument to support WFD implementation. However, limited budgets, combined with the large extent of agricultural pressures will considerably restrain the results this instrument might deliver. Limited effects are also expected from the cross-compliance standards, mainly because: the standards do not cover all WFD aspects, and the existing legislation is not implemented with the same rigour in all the Member States. WFD provides additional powerful tools (River Basin Management Planning and Water Pricing discussion) to improve the situation, but the timetables of WFD and CAP do not fit each other. The activity should be continued with an intensive discussion on case and success stories in all the mentioned tools informing both policy areas for the planned evaluation of cross-compliance in 2007, and a mid-term evaluation on rural development in 2009.     

The WFD Implementation in the European Member States

The Water Framework Directive (WFD), one of the most influential pieces of European water legislation, presents a general framework for integrated river basin management in Europe to meet the environmental objectives. More than 16 years after the WFD adoption and after the end of the first management cycle (in 2015), it is time for a screening assessment of the implementation of the WFD in the different Member States (MSs). This article provides a global overview about the evolution of WFD implementation in MSs, highlighting the progression of the European water bodies status, as well as, some of the main challenges of WFD implementation: ecological flows, pricing policies/economic analysis, climate change, exemptions, public participation and transboundary issues. The paper examines these different topic, drawing up their situation in different MSs. For that purpose, not only the foreseen second cycle of the River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs) is analysed as also, at a larger scale, the expectations and challenges for the future set by the WFD are examined.     

EU Water Framework Directive versus Real Needs of Groundwater Management

Considerable financial, human and administrative reserves of the European Community are currently concentrated on the implementation of the Water Framework Directive (WFD). This implementation is hoped to positively change the approach to groundwater management in many countries; however, it probably does not have any significant impact on the issue of groundwater management optimization at the operational level. Taking into account the WFD requirements concerning the optimization of groundwater management, a methodology of groundwater resources reporting and balancing in catchment systems is proposed here. The entire discussion presented in this paper focuses on quantitative aspects of groundwater management.     

A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Water-Saving Measures for the Water Framework Directive: the Case of the Guadalquivir River Basin in Southern Spain

The aim of this paper is to contribute to the still scarce literature on Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) in the context of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) in water scarce areas illustrated through a case study in Southern Spain. CEA is the preferred method to select policy measures to achieve the good ecological status of water bodies as prescribed by the WFD. It generates a ranking of the measures, according to the ratio between the equivalent annual cost and the reduction of impacts, to select the measures to be included in the Program of Measures (PoM). Here, the water-saving measures discussed in the public participation process for the elaboration of the PoM for the Guadalquivir River Basin are analysed using CEA. A methodological approach, including uncertainty for cost and efficiency of measures is proposed. A comparison between pressure and impact analysis of the effectiveness of measures shows that, in the context of the WFD, CEA should be based on the impact of the measures rather than on the pressure reduction, as the latter can lead to a misleading ranking of the water-saving measures.     

Use of Models to Support the Monitoring Requirements in the Water Framework Directive

Implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) poses many new challenges to European water managers. Monitoring programmes play a key role to assess the status and identify possible trends in the environmental conditions of river basins; to gain new knowledge on water processes and to assess to which extent implemented measures actually have the expected effects in terms of improving the environmental status. Despite a general acknowledgement in the scientific community on the benefits of using monitoring and modelling jointly, it has not been the common practise in the European monitoring programmes so far. Several obstacles may be identified which limits the joint use of monitoring and modelling, such as lack of the required skill, lack of time, lack of confidence in models but also a lack of awareness on how models can be used in practise. In this paper we provide examples on how modelling can support the monitoring programmes to meet the objectives of the monitoring programmes in the WFD more efficiently. The extent to which the monitoring requirements in the WFD can be expected to supply sufficient data for modelling purposes is further addressed. This question is, however, not well posed, as the data requirement for modelling is highly dependent on the required accuracy of the model results.     

Europe's Water Framework Directive: discovering hidden benefits.

The water utility companies in the UK are regulated by the economic regulator to ensure that they do not abuse their monopoly powers and operate under high efficiency targets to minimise costs to their customers. The requirements for improved environmental performance are set by the Environment Agency and, once agreed, incorporated in a five-year plan. Prior to the Water Framework Directive the companies had little choice but to meet a rigorous programme to achieve higher discharge standards as end-of-pipe solutions. The catchment-based approach of the WFD, coupled with the requirement to achieve 'good status' for receiving waters and the requirement for stakeholder involvement, has introduced much needed flexibility into the process which is expected to lead to better and more cost effective solutions to water quality problems.     

Easier Said Than Done? The Establishment of Baseline Groundwater Conditions for the Implementation of the Water Framework Directive in Spain

The European Union (EU) Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires EU countries to achieve good status of all their waters by 2015. This should be achieved through the implementation of river basin management plans (RBMPs), which in turn are based on water resources baseline data. While it is too soon to assess the WFD effectiveness, the planning process has contributed to identify possible pitfalls of the WFD design and has provided an opportunity to enhance the knowledge of European water resources. Groundwater plays a strategic role in Spain’s economy and also in the maintenance of its aquatic ecosystems, making that country an excellent testing ground for getting an insight into the definition of baseline groundwater under the WFD mandate. This paper presents the results of compiling the information produced for the RBMPs to attain an overall picture at a national scale. In doing so, it examines some of the methodological and technical choices involved in the definition of a baseline for groundwater, assessing their practical consequences on groundwater management. This paper argues that having baseline figures for the RBMPs required compromises or shortcuts to be taken. Undoubtedly, the process leading to the first WFD Plans has been an extremely enriching learning process, but it leaves questions unanswered. The periodic (6 year) RBMP revision should become an opportunity to revisit and better tune the baseline conditions established during this first planning cycle.     

Environmental and Resource Costs Under Water Scarcity Conditions: An Estimation in the Context of the European Water Framework Directive

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires the good ecological status of surface water bodies, which implies the improvement of both their physicochemical condition, as well as their flow and continuity. The WFD prescribes the assessment of environmental and resource costs and benefits associated with implementing these improvements. The recent literature focuses almost exclusively on the assessment of the economic values related to quality aspects. However, in much of southern Europe, fulfilling the WFD goals will greatly depend on maintaining sufficient water flow, as well. This study aims to fill this gap by assessing the non-market value of allocating enough water to the environment to ensure environmental services are sustained when water is scarce. The non-market value of guaranteeing water supply for secondary household uses is also estimated. Using the Guadalquivir River Basin in Spain as a case study, a choice experiment is applied with scenarios characterized by varying water flow levels and accompanying environmental impacts, and a different frequency of household water restrictions. The results show that the population derives significant benefits not only from the direct use of water, but that also holds non-use values related to the ecological status, although the latter has a considerably lower impact on consumer surplus. Additionally, we conclude that the costs of implementing the water saving measures currently included in the Program of Measures seem to be proportionate to its benefits in this case.     

Groundwater-Dependent Wetlands in the UK and Ireland: Controls,Functioning and Assessing the Likelihood of Damage from Human Activities

Under the Water Framework Directive (WFD) the requirement for ‘good groundwater status’ is dependent upon there being no ‘significant damage’ to groundwater-dependent terrestrial ecosystems, i.e. groundwater-dependent wetlands. An ecohydrogeological framework was developed to assess the risk of significant damage for groundwater-dependent terrestrial ecosystems in the UK and the Republic of Ireland. The framework will be used by the competent authorities implementing the WFD as a decision support system to apply the WFD guidelines on a local to regional basis. The framework considers the variety of groundwater controls and pathways of different wetland types and allows a specific assessment to be made of the vulnerability of different wetland types to groundwater related risks. Seven distinct wetland types were identified and the potential pressures were evaluated. A GIS framework was developed in order to analyse the spatial coincidence of potential risks to each wetland type. The framework was tested for a trial dataset of 10 groundwater controlled wetland ecosystems in England and Wales in order to evaluate their current risk of damage.     

Decision Support for the Selection of Measures according to the Requirements of the EU Water Framework Directive

One major scientific challenge posed by the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) is the design of a decision support process that meets the Directive’s requirement to achieve “good status” for all water bodies using a cost-effective combination of measures. This paper presents BASINFORM, a new decision methodology for selecting cost-effective management measures, developed in close co-operation with the water authorities and tested in the 5,154 km2 mesoscale river Weisse Elster in central Germany. BASINFORM comprises (i) a procedure for framing the specific problems in the water bodies, including quantification of the need for action, (ii) modelling tools for quantifying the impacts of management measures, and (iii) a method for selecting cost-effective combinations of measures. One innovative feature of BASINFORM is that it structures the complex decision problems appropriately for practical use and provides an easy-to-use framework for integrating scientific and practical knowledge. A trial run applying BASINFORM to the Weisse Elster catchment revealed that good surface water status with respect to nutrient levels cannot be achieved if only the “standard” actions of current water management are taken to reduce point sources (sewage treatment) and diffuse agricultural sources. It also became clear that the nutrient-reduction measures available will generate considerable costs. The application of BASINFORM in this case study demonstrated its practical applicability in the WFD implementation process. Beyond the case study described here BASINFORM is currently being used for practical implementation of the WFD in the German Federal State of Thuringia.     

Implementing the European “Floods Directive”: the Case of the Po River Basin

The European “Floods Directive” 2007/60/EC (FD) asks Member States to develop flood risk maps on the bases of most appropriate and advanced tools, with particular attention on limiting required economic efforts. The question arises on how these tools should be selected so as to supply all the knowledge that is required to develop Flood Risk Management Plans (FRMPs). By analysing the implementation of the FD in the Po River Basin (Italy), the paper describes and compares two different approaches for flood risk assessment: the expert driven-qualitative approach vs. the quantitative approach based on damage models. The comparison shows, as expected, that quantitative approaches supply more useful knowledge for the development of FRMPs (and for flood risk management in general) with respect to qualitative approaches. However, they still present limits which prevent their adoption without critically consider the peculiarities of the investigated area in terms of available knowledge on hazard, exposure and vulnerability. Accordingly, considerations are supplied on how effectiveness of quantitative approaches can be maximized, towards flood risk management objectives.     

Environmental Flows Under the WFD Implementation

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) is the first piece of European environmental legislation addressing hydromorphological modifications and impacts on water bodies. Accordingly, in those water bodies where the hydromorphological pressures are having an impact on the ecological status, action is needed to achieve WFD objectives. Environmental flows appeared as one of the answers to this challenge. Due to their importance, Member States (MSs) have been looking to integrate ecological flows in the River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs) and Programmes of Measures (PoMs). More than seventeen years after the WFD adoption, this study aims to provide a systematic review of the use of environmental flows within the process of WFD implementation and their contribution to the achievement of environmental objectives. In order to achieve the goals of the study, a special analysis was done using: i) the WFD official documentation reporting the progress of WFD and environmental flows definition and implementation (such as the CIS Guidance n° 31), as well as, ii) the answers to key questions addressed to EU MSs representatives involved in the implementation of environmental flows. These enabled us to perceive how this topic has been addressed in MSs. Based on the gathered information the authors assessed whether a change in the environmental flows’ situation, between the 1st and 2nd RBMPs, has occurred by each MS, or whether progress on environmental flows assessments has been made. Furthermore, this study also highlights some MSs representatives comments related with the role of the Guidance n°31 and some relevant information related with the 3rd RBMPs. Even though an evolution on environmental flows assessments can be perceived, with an increase in MSs defining and incorporating environmental flows within the 2nd RBMPs and in the complexity of the conducted approaches, there is still a long way to go. Namely, it could be highlighted that more efforts are required for the: i) implementation of environmental flows and the monitoring of its effects in the water bodies status, ii) development of a verifiable link between environmental flows and biological indicators.     

欧盟水框架指令初议

欧盟水框架指令（WFD）是近几十年来欧盟在水资源领域颁布的最重要指令。简要分析了欧盟水框架指令产生的背景及过程,概述了指令主要内容及法律效力,分析了其在流域管理、规划、价格激励、信息咨询等方面的主要特点,并结合现代水资源管理的特点,提出几点建议。     

Eelgrass as a Bioindicator Under the European Water Framework Directive

Eelgrass is the most widespread plant in temperate coastal waters. It is regarded as a useful indicator of water quality because water clarity regulates its extension towards deeper waters, i.e. the depth limit. This study analyses the use of eelgrass depth limits as a bioindicator under the Water Framework Directive (WFD). The WFD demands that ecological status is classified by relating the actual level of bioindicators to a so-called reference level, reflecting a situation of limited anthropogenic influence. The directive further demands that reference levels are defined for water body types with similar hydromorphological characteristics, and that the classification thereby becomes type-specific.A large historic data set on depth limits of eelgrass around 1900 was used to characterise reference levels, and a large data set from the Danish National Monitoring and Assessment Programme to characterise actual depth limits. Data represented a wide range of Danish coastal water bodies that were grouped into 10 water body types based on differences in salinity and water depth.The analyses clearly illustrate that the definition of ecological status classes markedly influence the assessment of ecological status according to the WFD. Moreover, the study demonstrates that the use of type-specific classification implies a risk of misinterpreting ecological status. Classification problems were pronounced in spite of a unique data material on reference conditions, and the problems are likely to be even greater in cases where reference conditions are less well defined. A more robust classification was obtained by using reference levels for individual sites in a site-specific classification.In conclusion, when classifying water quality on the basis of eelgrass depth limits, site-specific reference levels are recommended if such data are available. If more general information on reference levels is used, local conditions known to affect depth limits must be taken into account.