Curvilinear effects of severity of punishment on species-typical aggressive display in Betta splendens..

Three experiments examined the effects of the severity of punishment, defined in terms of intensity/voltage (Exp I), duration (Exp II), and frequency combined with 2 levels of intensity (Exp III), on the aggressive display of Siamese fighting fish. Findings show that display duration was a curvilinear function of punishment severity regardless of whether severity was defined as intensity, duration, or frequency. Relative to nonpunished conditions, moderate levels of punishment increased display duration, whereas strong punishment led to suppression. Increased biting was observed with moderate levels of punishment frequency. Results are discussed in terms of adaptive significance of the organism's reaction to counteraggression. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using visual reinforcement to establish stimulus control of responding of Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens).

Stimulus control of ring swimming was studied with male Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens) using 2-component multiple schedules in which the components were correlated with the presence or absence of air bubbles in the water. In Experiment 1, either response-independent mirror presentations or extinction was juxtaposed with immediate response-dependent mirror presentations. Rates of ring swimming generally were higher with immediate reinforcement than with either response-independent mirror presentations or extinction. In Experiment 2, different durations of response-dependent mirror presentations were juxtaposed. Generally, higher rates of ring swimming occurred with 15-s than with 0-, 1-, or 3-s durations. Results demonstrate that stimulus control of responding can be established with these fish under several conditions of differential reinforcement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of telencephalon ablation on the reinforcing and eliciting properties of species-specific events in Betta splendens..

Studied the effect of ablation on the instrumental learning and Pavlovian conditioning of 98 Betta splendens. In Exp I, the mirror presentations in yoked-control groups elicited fewer responses in ablates than in normal and sham-operated controls. Yoked controls established that instrumental responding was maintained by the reinforcement contingency and was not merely the result of increased motor activity. Exp II studied Pavlovian conditioning of the components of agonistic display. Unconditioned fin erection, gill erection, and tail beating to the mirror UCS were less frequent in ablates than in normals or shams. Only gill cover erection showed evidence of true conditioning. However, ablates suffered no impairment of conditioned gill erections. Results support hypotheses postulating the involvement of learned mechanisms in ablation-produced deficits and normal aggressive behavior. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The biological function of Pavlovian conditioning: The best defense is a good offense.

Signaled presentations of a rival male produce an aggressive CR in several species of fish. The present 2 experiments, with 16 male blue gouramies (Trichogaster trichopterus), showed that signaled territorial intrusion enables a male to defend his territory more aggressively than when the intruder is unsignaled. In Exp I, pairs of territorial males, with different conditioning histories, confronted one another for the 1st time. One member of the pair previously had received Pavlovian conditioning, whereas the other pair member had received explicitly unpaired presentations of the same signal (CS) and rival male (UCS). In the subsequent encounter, which was signaled by CS presentation, Pavlovian males delivered significantly more bites and tailbeatings than did their control group opponents. Exp II relied on a different control procedure, a UCS-only condition; however, again, Pavlovian males enjoyed a significant aggressive advantage. Results suggest an important ecological role for Pavlovian conditioning. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationships between overt and fantasy aggression.

The interrelationships among aggressive needs, anticipation of punishment, and overt aggressive behavior in 29 lower-class boys were investigated in this study. Three hypotheses were tested: 1) among lower class boys, those having a relatively great amount of fantasy aggressive needs indulge in more overt aggressive behavior than those who have relatively few aggressive fantasy needs; 2) Ss whose TAT stories included a great deal of punishment press relative to the number of their aggressive needs demonstrate less overt aggression than Ss whose ratios of punishment press to aggressive needs are low; and 3) Those with low punishment press/aggressive fantasy ratio show more aggression in their behavior than those with high P/A ratio. All three hypotheses were supported by the data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Display reinforcement in the Siamese fighting fish, Betta splendens : Aggressive motivation or curiosity?

Tested 34 adult male fish in a runway 'T'-maze apparatus. The 3 experiments compared performance (measured by swimming speed and percent choice correct) to a variety of stimuli in the goal box. The stimulus that evoked the most vigorous aggressive display (a live conspecific) supported the highest level of performance; a stimulus that evoked no display (a marble) failed to sustain operant behavior. Stimuli that induced some aggression but also some escape (live nondisplay fish) supported performance at reduced levels. These results implicate aggression and not curiosity as the primary motivating factor. They also show that the responsiveness of the stimulus is a critical aspect of reinforcement and that the level of performance is determined by escape tendencies as well as aggression. It is proposed that failure of a stimulus to provide appropriate feedback constitutes an aversive event. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of US intensity and number of CS-US pairings on maintenance of vicious-circle behavior in rats by secondary punishment.

By factorial arrangement, 8 groups of male hooded Long-Evans rats (N = 80) received either 3 or 15 buzzer presentations associated with a shock of 0, 55, 70, or 85 V in a conditioning apparatus. 1 other group was administered buzzer and shock presentations randomly paired in time; the final group had 15 pairings of buzzer and an 85-V shock. During extinction of a runway avoidance response, each group received continuous buzzer punishment except the final group, which received no buzzer. It was found that alley running speed and trials to extinction were increasing functions of shock intensity presented during fear conditioning. While the number-of-pairings variable was somewhat more equivocal in its effects, results largely substantiate expectations of a conditioned-fear interpretation of secondary self-punitive behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex reversal in female Betta splendens as a function of testosterone manipulation and social influence.

In Experiment 1, female Betta given daily injections of testosterone (T) for 9 weeks acquired anatomical features characteristic of males as indicated by changes in fin length, body coloration, and gonadal morphology. These findings suggested that a potential for sex reversal exists in females of this species. In Experiment 2 we measured changes in aggressive behavior during testosterone-induced anatomical changes. Aggression decreased toward females and increased toward males as treatment with T progressed. The final displays of aggressive behavior and anatomical characteristics of fish injected with T resembled those of typical males. In Experiment 3, female Betta primed with T injections for 3 or 6 weeks and permitted to interact socially with females continued to display characteristics of sex reversal after T supplementation ceased. Sex reversal in isolated fish injected with T for 3 or 6 weeks was not sustained, and fish receiving only the control vehicle showed negligible change in both the isolated and community conditions. We discuss the results in terms of similarities with the sex change process found in isolated communities of coral reef fish. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Levels of chlordane compounds in fish muscle, -meal, -oil and -feed

Cis-, trans-, oxychlordane and trans-nonachlor were determined in the edible part of more than 140 fish samples of 15 different species and in fish meal, -oil and fish feed. The investigated fish included most of the important fish species consumed in Germany. Highest concentrations were found in muscle of marine fish with high or moderate fat content, but also in eel and farmed salmon. Marine fish with low fat content contained only traces of chlordane in the muscle tissue. A relationship between fishing ground and levels of chlordane could not be established. Contamination level of herring was related to the age (length) of the fish. Data are also given for contamination levels of fish meal, -oil and -feed.     

The psychoanalytic theory of depression: Symptoms as a function of aggressive wishes and level of field articulation.

Relatively undifferentiated, field-dependent (FD) individuals, in contrast to relatively differentiated, field-independent individuals, are assumed to cope by using introjection. Consistent with the psychoanalytic theory that depression related to object loss results from introjected anger, it was expected that only FD individuals would display symptoms of depression in response to aggressive wishes. It was also expected that FD individuals would show greater physiological reactivity due to their characteristic tendency toward direct affective discharge. 60 undergraduates were divided according to field-articulation scores on the rod-and-frame test, and each S received tachistoscopic presentations of either an aggressive or a neutral stimulus. Measures of mood, self-esteem, and autonomic arousal were used to assess Ss' response to the stimulus. Results indicate that FD Ss displayed a greater degree of depressive feelings irrespective of the type of stimulus with which they were presented. No significant differences were found with regard to self-esteem, and differences for autonomic arousal were not consistent. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychoanalytic theory: "The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated."

Discusses 2 independent ongoing research programs investigating the relationship between psychopathology and unconscious libidinal and aggressive wishes. In the 1st program conducted by the author (see record 1971-31262-001) laboratory experiments using a "subliminal psychodynamic activation"with 39 groups of from 26-8 clinical Ss supported the hypothesis that presentation (tachistoscopic) of wish-related stimuli (vs presentation of neutral stimuli) affected the level of manifest psychopathology. Additional support came from 16 experiments (using a similar design) with over 400 persons with primary process ego pathology, depression, homosexuality, or stuttering: subliminal exposure of stimuli led to intensification of pathology on a variety of psychological tests. Another series of studies with over 200 Ss led to decreased primary process ego pathology in schizophrenics by reducing conflict through activating a fantasy of symbiotic gratification. The 2nd major research program was developed by J. Reyher (1958 and 1967) and his associates and used hypnotic suggestion with "normal" college students to confirm that activation of aggressive and subliminal mental contents can stimulate pathology. Overall results illustrate theory validation by converging operations and pose a substantive challenge to critics of psychoanalytic theory. (2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of intermittent and constant punishment on resistance to punishment in a free operant situation for the albino rat.

Trained male Wistar albino rats (10 experimental and 9 control Ss) to barpress for food reinforcement in a 2-bar cyclic response chain situation. Responding on 1 bar led also to a punishment (footshock) on either an intermittent or constant schedule. Both punishment schedules led to increased responding on the nonpunished bar and to initial response suppression followed by recovery on the punished bar. For Ss on the intermittent schedule, the response increase on the nonpunished bar was seen only after a punishment on the other bar. Similar effects were found for transfer time between the 2 bars. The effects of punishment on response to both bars were more pronounced for the intermittent punishment groups. Results are discussed in terms of the motivational constructs of A. Amsel and of R. K. Banks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Classical conditioning provides paternity advantage for territorial male blue gouramis (Trichogaster trichopterus).

An irony of territorial behavior is that successful territory defense requires males to be aggressive, but highly aggressive males often inadvertently repel females, potential mates that the territory was created to attract. The authors provide empirical evidence that learning to anticipate the arrival of a female not only can overcome this well-recognized cost of territorial behavior but also can provide a significant paternity advantage. Following a short training period in which male blue gourami fish (Trichogaster trichopterus) either received classically conditioned pairings of a signal and a receptive female or received unpaired presentations of the signal and a female, male subjects were given an opportunity to mate. Signaling of female accessibility not only enabled classically conditioned males to attenuate their initial aggressive response to arriving females but, more important, classically conditioned males were able to spawn with females sooner, clasp females more often, and produce more young than males that did not have the benefit of a signal. Results provide the first demonstration of direct reproductive benefits resulting from classical conditioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of the repeated experience of aggression in daily confrontations on the individual and social behavior of male mice

The influence of repeated experience of aggression in daily intermale confrontations on individual and social behaviour was studied in male mice of C57BL/6J (C57) and CBA/Lac (CBA) strains. Repeated experience of aggression led to a decrease of emotionality in males of highly emotional CBA strain and increase in exploratory activity in the open field and exploratory activity tests, decrease of immobility time in Porsolt's test and pain sensitivity estimated by the "hot plate" test. Low emotional C57 males did not change their individual behaviour in different situations under the influence of repeated experience of aggression. However, aggressive C57 mice demonstrated anxiety-like behaviour estimated in the plus-maze test. In the partition test aggressive mice of both strains showed an increase in communicative level (as a reaction to a familiar male) in comparison with their behaviour before aggressive confrontations. Behavioural reaction to a receptive female under unfamiliar conditions decreased which testified to a decrease in sexual motivation. It is concluded that formation of the aggressive type of social behaviour is accompanied by changes in the individual and social behaviour of male mice. Characteristics of these changes are genetically determined and depend on the duration of confrontations.     

Size Estimation in Schizophrenics as a Function of Stimulus-Presentation Time.

15 good premorbid paranoid acute schizophrenics, 15 poor premorbid nonparanoid acute schizophrenics, and 15 attendants, all males, estimated stimulus paranoid size after receiving (a) 10-sec. and (b) 100-msec. presentations of the standard, also (c) 10-msec. blank flashes instead of the standard. Choices were then made from a group of variable-sized stimuli. As expected, good paranoids, normals, and poor nonparanoids tended to low, intermediate, and high estimation levels, respectively. Contrary to eye-movement interpretation, patient groups differed under the 100-msec. presentation. Lowered estimation level with this presentation suggested stimulus redundancy interpretations. No differences with the blank flash ruled out a simple size-preference response bias. Equal proportions of "hits" among groups indicated that error distributions rather than error frequencies accounted for the results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rehabilitating criminal justice policy and practice.

For over 30 years, criminal justice policy has been dominated by a “get tough” approach to offenders. Increasing punitive measures have failed to reduce criminal recidivism and instead have led to a rapidly growing correctional system that has strained government budgets. The inability of reliance on official punishment to deter crime is understandable within the context of the psychology of human conduct. However, this knowledge was largely ignored in the quest for harsher punishment. A better option for dealing with crime is to place greater effort on the rehabilitation of offenders. In particular, programs that adhere to the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model have been shown to reduce offender recidivism by up to 35%. The model describes: a) who should receive services (moderate and higher risk cases), b) the appropriate targets for rehabilitation services (criminogenic needs), and c) the powerful influence strategies for reducing criminal behavior (cognitive social learning). Although the RNR model is well known in the correctional field it is less well known, but equally relevant, for forensic, clinical, and counseling psychology. The paper summarizes the empirical base to RNR along with implications for research, policy, and practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Avoidance of Relatively Aggressive Male Japanese Quail (Coturnix japonica) by Sexually Experienced Conspecific Females.

Sexually experienced female Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) that are offered a choice between 2 conspecific males previously observed engaging in an aggressive encounter prefer to affiliate with the less aggressive male. The authors determined whether this apparent preference for less aggressive males results from females approaching less aggressive individuals or avoiding more aggressive individuals. The authors found that females that had seen 2 males fight before choosing, in counterbalanced order, between each of them and a neutral stimulus were indifferent to less aggressive males but avoided more aggressive males. The results are consistent with the view that in species in which male courtship and mating are potentially harmful to females, females keep away from relatively aggressive males in order to avoid the physical punishment that can result from contact with them. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social dominance in preschool classrooms.

The authors examined preschoolers' aggressive and cooperative behaviors and their associations with social dominance. First and as predicted, directly observed aggressive interactions decreased across the school year, and same-sex aggression occurred more frequently than cross-sex aggression. Next, the authors examined the relation between aggression and reconciliation, cooperation, and social display variables. Teacher ratings of children's aggression related to observed aggression but not to observed "wins" of aggressive bouts. Instead, wins were related to cooperation and display variables. Finally, they examined the relative power of wins and cooperation in predicting 2 measures of social dominance. After age was controlled, wins alone predicted teacher-rated social dominance. Results are discussed in terms of different forms of competition and how school ethos affects these forms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Molecular characterization of a single mitochondria-associated double-stranded RNA in the green alga Bryopsis

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of a moderate dose of fish oil on glycemic control and in vivo insulin action in type 2 diabetic men with elevated plasma triacylglycerols and to determine the effect of the same treatment on gene expression of GLUT4, lipoprotein lipase (LPL), and hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) in the abdominal adipose tissue. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 12 type 2 diabetic men were randomly allocated to 2 months of 6 g daily of either fish oil or sunflower oil, separated by a 2-month washout interval, in a double-blind crossover design. RESULTS: For glucose metabolism, 2 months of fish oil supplementation compared with sunflower oil led to similar fasting plasma insulin, glucose, and HbA1c. Basal hepatic glucose production did not increase after fish oil. There was no difference in insulin suppression of hepatic glucose production nor in insulin stimulation of whole-body glucose disposal measured by the euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp. Fish oil did not ameliorate the low mRNA level of GLUT4 in adipose tissue of these patients. For lipid profile, fish oil lowered plasma triacylglycerol more than sunflower oil (P < 0.05) and tended to increase the amount of mRNA of both LPL and HSL in adipose tissue. CONCLUSIONS: A moderate dose of fish oil did not lead to deleterious effects on glycemic control or whole-body insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic men, with preserved triacylglycerol-lowering capacities.