Reading ability and single-letter orthographic redundancy.

Two experiments investigated the role of one form of intraword orthographic redundancy: the characteristic asymmetric spatial distributions of letters of the alphabet across serial positions within words. In Exp I, 81 college students demonstrated recognition knowledge of these distributions when given only the letter name, word length, and serial position information with no other context. Ss were correct more often for those letters which are least variable across serial positions. In Exp II, 28 5th graders who were skilled readers demonstrated a sensitivity to letter positional distributions similar to that of the adults; 20 poor readers did not. However, performance was equivalent for both good and poor readers on a subset of letters relatively unpredictable with respect to serial position. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the recognition of words with inverted letters.

Conducted 2 experiments in which 24 Ss were asked to identify words with all or some of their letters inverted. The experiments differed only in the explicitness of the instructions given to Ss. In some cases the letters appearing upside down were inverted as 1 unit, and in other cases they were inverted by letter. It was found that when all the letters were inverted, recognition time was faster for unit inversion. When just a few of the letters in the words were inverted, recognition time was shorter when the inversion was letter by letter rather than by unit. Data are consistent with a model that assumes that when the stimulus is homogeneously misoriented unit correction is applied, and when such homogeneity does not exist piecemeal correction is applied. (French abstract) (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evidence of preliminary response preparation from a divided attention task.

In a divided attention situation, preliminary response activations produced by stimuli on one channel were revealed through their effects on responses to stimuli on a secondary probe channel. Subjects performed concurrent but independent four-choice reaction-time tasks using the same four response fingers (middle and index fingers on both hands). In the main task, targets were large and small Ss and Ts, and medium-sized Ss and Ts sometimes appeared as distractors. Targets in the probe task were squares differing in location. A response to a probe square was faster if a distractor letter presented just before it had the same name as the target letter corresponding to that square (i.e., assigned to the same response key) than if the distractor letter had a different name—a result indicating that distractor letters cause partial response preparation. The timecourse of the effect demonstrated that preparation was based on preliminary information about distractor name that was available before distractor size had been determined. The results support models in which response preparation can sometimes begin before stimulus recognition has finished. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Choice reaction-time study assessing the verbal behavior of the minor hemisphere in normal adult humans.

Conducted 2 choice RT experiments in which a total of 12 right-handed college students scanned a memory set of 1 or 6 letters for the presence of a test letter. The memory set was presented binaurally and the test letter visually to either the right or left visual field. S indicated with his left hand whether or not the test letter was contained in the memory set. Results show the RT was shorter for the left visual field test letter when the set contained only 1 letter and for the right visual field test letter when the set contained 6 letters. The possibility that Ss matched the set and test letters visually when the set contained only 1 letter and verbally when the set contained 6 letters is discussed. Results suggest that the minor hemisphere displays little, if any, verbal abilities. (31 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The roles of stimulus-response compatibility and mental rotation in mirror-image and left-right decisions.

Examined the relative roles of mental rotation and stimulus-response (SR) compatibility in mirror-image and left-right decisions. 15 Ss, aged 19–43 yrs, were shown rotated letters and asked to indicate whether the letters were normal or backward (mirror-image task). Ss were then asked whether a dot would be located to the left or right of each letter if the letter was upright (viewer-centered left-right task) or if the letter was both upright and normal (letter-centered left-right task). The functions relating reaction time (RT) to angular orientation were parallel across the 3 tasks, suggesting that SR compatibility played no role, and that the Ss mentally rotated the letters to the upright in each case. A marked increase in RT to backward letters in the letter-centered task suggested a 2nd rotation in depth to restore the letters to normal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Presenting words without interior letters: Superiority over single letters and influence of postmask boundaries.

In 5 experiments with a total of 32 Ss, exterior letter pairs from 4-letter words (e.g., d??k from dark) were presented in pattern-postmasked displays, in the positions they would occupy if the whole word were shown. In Exp 1, letter pairs (d??k) were reported more accurately than single letters (d) (the pair–letter effect). In Exps 2 and 3, performances with letter pairs dropped to those for single letters when each letter in a pair was masked individually or when masks were much wider than letter pairs. In Exps 4 and 5, the pair–letter effect and mask influence were both removed when one letter in each pair was replaced by a number sign (d??#) or when letter pairs were not the exterior letters of real words (e.g., y??f). These findings suggest that the exterior letter combinations of words are represented psychologically and access to these representations is affected by mask configuration. Implications for current word-recognition models are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pictorial mnemonics for phonics.

Evaluated whether picture mnemonics help prereaders learn letter–sound associations in 2 experiments with 20 1st graders (Exp I), 30 preschoolers, and kindergartners (Exp II). Pictures integrating the associations were compared with disassociated pictures and with a no-picture control condition. Ss in the integrated-picture group learned 5 letter-sound associations (e.g., f, /f/), each represented by a picture whose shape included the letter (e.g., letter f drawn as the stem of a flower) and whose name (flower) began with the letter's sound. Ss in the disassociated-picture group learned letter–sound associations with pictures having the same names as the integrated pictures, but drawn differently—without letter shapes. Ss in the control group learned associations with picture names but no pictures. Prior to letter–sound training, all groups were taught how to segment the initial sounds of the picture names. Results reveal that Ss taught with integrated mnemonics learned more letter–sound associations and also more letter–picture associations than did the other 2 groups, which did not differ. Integrated pictures were effective because they linked 2 otherwise unconnected items in memory. It is concluded that the shape of letters included in pictures reminded learners of previously seen pictures with those shapes whose names began with the relevant letter sounds. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Location dominance in attending to color and shape.

Investigated in 4 experiments whether Ss direct attention to stimulus location when attempting to attend to its color or shape. In the 1st 2 experiments, a given property (location, color, or shape) of a letter cue instructed Ss whether to report any letters from a subsequent display. Regardless of which property was relevant, Ss reported letters adjacent to the cue and not those similar to its color or shape. In the last 2 experiments, the varied location of a cue was irrelevant to the task, whereas its varied color instructed Ss to report a letter in a given location or of a given shape. Targets adjacent to the cue were reported faster than those remote from the cue. The results suggest that attempting to attend to any aspect of a stimulus entails directing attention to location. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Processing nominal information during visual search.

Conducted 3 experiments to examine the processing of nominal information during a visual search. In Exp I, 6 experienced and 2 naive Ss searched for a single pre-specified target letter, and the stimulus exposure-time needed to yield a 50% (corrected for chance) level of accuracy was estimated using the parameter estimation by sequential testing procedure. Results show that the exposure-time was not influenced by the presence (in the irrelevant items) of the target's other case; this suggested that there was no obligatory accessing of nominal information during preattentive processing. In Exp II, 6 experienced Ss searched in Condition 1 for a single target which was specified as being one of a same-name pair of letters, and in Condition 2 for a target specified as one of a same-shape pair of letters. The exposure-time required for the same-name search was greater than that required for the same-shape search. In Exp III, accuracy of search was compared in the same-shape and same-name conditions with a control condition. The target in this control condition was specified as one of a pair of letters not sharing a name or any special shape. 12 Ss searched 6-item displays and 12 Ss searched 12-item displays for a pre-specified target letter. Results confirm the difference detected in Exp II, but they do not show any difference between performance in the same-name condition and in the control condition. It is suggested that some focal processing is required for the development of a sufficiently detailed level of visual representation to allow for naming. (French summary) (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivational level and response to academic encouragement among low-achieving college males.

Investigated the relationship between academic achievement motivation and response to academic encouragement, using 2 different counseling letters. Ss were 150 male college freshmen who had received 1 or 2 failing grades in their 1st semester. Motivation was measured by Biggs' College Opinion Survey Questionnaire. No differences were found between the experimental letter groups and no-contact controls on either posttreatment GPA or on the number of helping sources contacted by the Ss. However, the high-motivation experimental Ss had significantly higher posttreatment GPAs and fewer "F" grades than low-motivation experimental Ss. There were no differences in posttreatment GPAs or number of "F" grades between high- and low-motivation controls. Implications for the role of the university counseling center in future attempts at helping low-achieving college students are discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Do alphabet letters help prereaders acquire phonemic segmentation skill?

Tested the assumptions that phonemic segmentation skill is learned best in the oral mode and that teaching segmentation with alphabet letters confuses learners. Three treatment groups of 8 prereaders (mean age 67.8 mo) were formed. The letter group was taught to segment nonword blends using letter tokens. The nonletter group was taught to segment blends with tokens lacking letters. A control group received no training. Experimental groups took about the same time and number of trials to reach criterion during training, indicating that neither method was more difficult or time consuming. Errors indicated that letters helped Ss learn to distinguish phoneme-size units and to remember the correct sounds during the task. On a segmentation posttest, letter and nonletter Ss segmented unpracticed blends better than controls, indicating that both groups acquired general segmentation skill. Letter Ss were superior to nonletter Ss in segmenting practiced sounds, with both groups surpassing controls. It is suggested that letters provide learners with a mental symbol system for representing and thinking about specific phonemes. (53 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personalization, respondent anonymity, and response distortion in mail surveys.

Investigated whether the level of personalization expressed in an advance notice and cover letter distorted the reporting of common demographic information in a mail survey. A factorial design with 2 levels of advance notice (telephone call, mimeographed form letter) and 2 levels of cover letter (personalized, form) was employed. Ss were 276 married females (representing a 42% response rate) for whom 7 items of demographic information were available from an independent source (credit application). Comparison of mail-survey and credit-application responses revealed that distortion in reporting family income and occupation of wife was related to the use of personalized cover letters. Implications of the findings for behavioral scientists who depend on mail surveys for data collection are considered. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The contributions of phonological awareness and letter-name knowledge to letter-sound acquisition—a cross-classified multilevel model approach.

In the present study, we investigated critical factors in letter-sound acquisition (i.e., letter-name knowledge and phonological awareness) with data from 653 English-speaking kindergartners in the beginning of the year. We examined (a) the contribution of phonological awareness to facilitating letter-sound acquisition from letter names and (b) the probabilities of letter-sound acquisition as a function of letter characteristics (i.e., consonant–vowel letters, vowel–consonant letters, letters with no sound cues, and vowel letters). The results show that letter-name knowledge had a large impact on letter-sound acquisition. Phonological awareness had a larger effect on letter-sound knowledge when letter names were known than when letter names were unknown. Furthermore, students were more likely to know the sounds of consonant–vowel letters (e.g., b and d) than vowel–consonant letters (e.g., l and m) and letters with no sound cues (e.g., h and y) when the letter name was known and phonological awareness was accounted for. Sounds were least likely to be known for letters with no sound cues, but reliable differences from other groups of letters depended on students' levels of phonological awareness and letter-name knowledge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evidence against the computation of abstract letter identities in visual processing.

Conducted 2 studies conceptually similar to the study of D. Besner et al (see record 1985-05766-001) in which letter strings were reorganized into sets where the single letters that were different were phonologically similar (e.g., G vs C) or dissimilar (e.g., G vs K). Latencies for same–different decisions about mixed-case letter strings were faster when the different letters were phonologically dissimilar. Results suggested skilled readers access name codes of individual letters in making their speeded classifications. In the present studies with 16 undergraduates, phonological similarity was manipulated in either the 1st or 4th letter of a mixed-case 4-letter string. A similarity effect was found when the 1st letter was varied. Results are not consistent with the view that abstract letter identities are computed in the course of same–different decisions about simultaneously presented mixed-case displays. (French abstract) (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental changes in word recognition strategies

Attempted to determine when children develop adultlike strategies in word recognition and use the entire configuration as a basis for a response rather than individual letters. A total of 144 kindergartners, 1st-6th graders, and undergraduates were asked to choose an alternative which most resembled a stimulus trigram, quadrigram, or quingram. Ss could respond on the basis of individual letter position and overall word shape. There was a clear developmental trend such that, with increasing age, Ss were more likely to choose alternatives with the same shape as the stimulus. There was also a tendency to choose response alternatives with the same 1st letter as the stimulus through 4th grade, followed by a decreasing tendency to rely on the 1st letter starting with the 5th grade. Results are considered supportive of E. J. Gibson's (see record 1972-22179-001) hypothesis of a developmental change with increasing age and schooling in feature analysis and extraction. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alphabetic sequence decisions for letter pairs with separations of one to three letters.

Tested the alphabet storage and retrieval theory of D. Klahr et al (1983) for applicability to letter-order decisions. Ss judged whether letter pairs with sequential separations of 1, 2, or 3 letters were in correct or incorrect order. Ss made decisions either in a continuous- or intermittent-attention mode. The results of alphabetic letter-order decisions with a letter separation of 1 were in conformance with the theory of Klahr et al in both attention modes. However, at letter separations of 2 and 3 letters, Ss made decisions that were more compatible with a symbolic-distance mechanism. Speculation on how Ss could make alphabetic-order decisions in either a memory-consultation or a symbolic-distance manner is made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the independence of naming and locating masked targets in visual search.

Twelve Ss were required to name or locate masked letters in arrays containing noise elements. Accuracy in locating was lower when target letters were presented among Vs than when presented among triangles or with no noise. Naming was as accurate when Vs and triangles were presented with the target as when no noise was presented. Since noise did not affect naming in the same way it affected locating, it was concluded that naming is independent of locating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Order of processing in visual perception.

Three experiments tested predictions derived from 3 cognitive scanning hypotheses proposing respectively a left-to-right, ends-first, and peripheral-foveal order of scanning. In Exps I and II configurations of letters and/or digits were presented to 11 Ss around a central fixation point, and the stimulus was followed by a 1-sec presentation of a patterned mask or a blank white field. Backward masking selectively impaired the identification of stimuli in foveal positions whether or not these stimuli occupied middle-of-row positions. In Exp III 4 Ss made a manual same-different response to the presence or absence of a critical letter presented 3Deg. to the left or right of fixation. Noise letters appeared on either side or both sides of the critical letter. Identification response times were faster when the critical letter appeared in the left-most position in left field arrays and the right-most position in right field arrays. Principal conclusions drawn from the 3 experiments were: (a) Alphanumeric stimuli are scanned from the peripheral visual field inward towards fixation. (b) Any left-to-right scanning occurs relatively late in iconic processing. (c) An ends-first scanning strategy is a particular case of a more general peripheral-foveal strategy. (French summary) (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The grammar of action and reversal errors in children's printing.

36 left-handed and 36 right-handed kindergarten children were asked to print after seeing a series of reversible letters and numbers presented individually on slides or flash cards. Regardless of handedness, both groups of Ss found the left–right orientation cues of the same letters and numbers difficult to recall. This challenges a proposal expressed in the "grammar of action" that claims that certain reversal errors in children's printing result from the inappropriate application of the horizontal motor rule, because although left- and right-handed children use this rule, they do so in different ways and therefore should have produced different errors. Another sample of 86 right-handed children from nursery school through Grade 1 was given the same printing task. Findings from this 2nd sample provide an additional challenge to the grammar of action by showing that reversals of the letter N, which are also thought to result from a misapplication of motor rules, decrease in frequency along with reversals of other letters and numbers, instead of increasing as predicted, during the developmental period when the motor rules that are said to be responsible for reversals of this particular letter become more strongly established. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)