岩石水压致裂过程的耦合分析

岩石的水压致裂过程是典型的渗流与应力耦合作用的破坏过程。在经典Biot渗流力学基本方程的基础上，基于弹性损伤理论，建立了岩石损伤演化过程的渗流-应力耦合模型，运用岩石损伤破裂过程渗流-应力耦合分析系统F-RFPA^2D，对水压致裂过程中裂纹的萌生、扩展、渗透率演化规律及渗流-应力耦合机制进行模拟分析，初步揭示了岩石水压致裂过程的失稳力学行为。     

水压致裂法地应力测量的数值模拟

由于测量深度深及其他突出优点,水压致裂法在地应力测量中已在国内外得到了广泛使用。基于大型通用有限元软件平台 Abaqus,建立了二维应力-损伤演化模型,对不同水压及初始裂隙下的多工况进行数值模拟试验,并与理论解进行比较以验证数值模拟结果的可靠性。分析结果表明:数值模拟试验的裂纹开展方位、致裂压力最小值与理论解吻合;初始裂隙的存在将影响致裂最小水压力值和裂纹扩展方向及模式,其结果可对原位地应力测试和水压致裂工程设计提供借鉴和指导。     

高压电脉冲水力压裂法煤层气增透的试验与数值模拟

为了提高低渗透性煤层气的抽采效率,揭示高压电脉冲水力压裂技术对煤体产生裂缝的效果及裂缝的扩展演化规律,通过实验室试验,对煤样进行单纯静水压裂(3 MPa)和相同水压力(3 MPa)、不同放电电压(5,10 k V)条件下的高压电脉冲水力压裂试验,应用CT扫描技术分析了煤样内部裂纹的起裂、发展、分布情况;建立数值模拟分析水压电脉冲作用下裂隙的发展规律和裂缝周边的应力分布情况。研究结果表明:在相同静水压力作用下,高压电脉冲水力压裂煤层比单纯静水压力致裂效果明显;放电电压越高,在裂隙尖端产生的拉应力值越大,煤体易产生疲劳损伤破坏,裂隙易产生、易发展;放电电压越高,裂纹数量越多,裂纹的起裂时间更早,裂缝延伸长度更长,宽度更宽,致裂效果更好;可证明高压电脉冲水力压裂煤层方法有效,技术可行。     

水压致裂过程的三维数值模拟研究

基于RFPA数值分析方法和并行计算技术,建立了反映岩石细观损伤演化过程的三维渗流–应力–损伤耦合模型。对具有120万单元的方形岩石材料模型,进行了4组不同应力状态下水压致裂过程的三维大规模科学计算分析。计算结果分析表明：起裂压力与失稳压力并不重合,起始裂纹均为张性,裂纹扩展形式、表面平整度、走向、扩展失稳过程以及裂纹的空间分布形态受应力状态影响。当竖直方向为最大主应力方向时裂纹呈空间竖片分布,当水平应力差较大时裂纹表面形态平整,失稳到来较快;当竖直方向为最小主应力方向时裂纹的空间分布呈水平片状;不等的主应力情况下裂纹总是分布在最小主应力面内;当三向主应力相等时,裂纹起裂位置和扩展方向具有竞争趋势,空间分布不具规律,裂缝分支较多。数值模拟结果与物理实验结果有着较好的吻合,该研究对水压致裂工程设计有一定参考价值。     

预制裂纹岩石压剪试验的数值模拟分析

采用岩石破裂过程分析软件RFPA^2D对预制裂隙大理岩试样的压剪试验进行数值模拟。数值分析表明，次生裂纹基本沿裂纹尖端萌生和扩展，所形成翼裂一股逐步趋向与荷载方向一致，这和试验结果是相吻合的。尽管某些数值分析结果和试验结果并不完全符合，但数值分析的模型和参数基本上有效地模拟了真实岩体介质的不均质性等力学特性。同时，采用该软件分析了加工小孔对裂尖应力状况的影响，加工小孔的存在对试验结果有一定影响，但并没有实质性影响。其影响主要在两方面：一是使翼裂起裂角变大，扩展路径变曲折；二是使材料更易于在裂尖引发二次(剪切)裂纹。最后，对锯齿形裂纹模型进行了初步的数值模拟。     

钙芒硝盐岩水力压裂裂纹端面特征试验研究

为研究钙芒硝水力压裂作用下裂纹扩展-溶解机理,对钙芒硝矿层的流体化开采提供参考,同时填补水力压裂中只有物理作用而无化学作用的空白,丰富水力压裂理论,作者采用室内试验的方法,分别进行了钙芒硝试件在轴压/围压为5/4 MPa、7/4 MPa、9/4 MPa三种应力条件下的水力压裂实验,并采用3D形貌扫描仪对破坏断面的裂纹形态进行扫描,结合裂纹粗糙度表征公式对试验数据进行计算分析。研究发现:钙芒硝水力压裂是应力和溶解的共同作用,压裂过程大致可以分为水压升高阶段、裂纹扩展阶段、水压下降阶段3个阶段;3个阶段的划分与前人研究成果相同,但裂纹扩展阶段的压力波动剧烈,与其他岩石(例如,煤,页岩)水力压裂试验结果相差较大,其为钙芒硝溶解现象影响所致;不同应力下,钙芒硝水压致裂后裂纹形态不同;当垂向应力差异系数(k)≤0.75时,钙芒硝盐岩产生横向裂纹,k≥1.25时,钙芒硝盐岩将产生纵向裂纹;同一应力状态下钙芒硝清水致裂后裂纹端面粗糙度大于饱和盐水致裂后的粗糙度,不同应力状态下,水压致裂后粗糙度随轴压的增大而增大。研究成果对钙芒硝矿层的原位溶浸流体化开采具有重要的工程价值。     

荷载和水压力作用下岩石裂纹贯通过程的数值模拟研究

应用自主开发的数值模拟系统F-RFPA^2D，研究荷载和水压力作用下岩石裂纹和内部缺陷结构相互作用下的贯通过程，内容包括岩石应力应变过程中，不同裂纹扩展阶段的渗透率演化规律，水压力对裂纹扩展模式和峰值强度的影响，岩石内部缺陷结构对裂纹贯通模式的影响等。结果表明，水压力和缺陷结构分布的非均匀性对岩石的应力峰值强度、峰值前后渗透性演化规律及裂纹贯通机制影响十分明显。     

一种岩体裂隙时效扩展的数值模拟方法及验证

 鉴于岩体中存在大量的微缺陷,假定数值模型中每个单元均含有一条长度和倾角具有正态分布的无厚度虚拟微裂纹。通过断裂力学理论及裂隙扩展模式,判定这些微裂纹的扩展速率及模式,当微裂扩展至单元边界,则此单元破坏。这些破坏的单元相互搭接连通,则形成宏观破裂面。以改进的Burgers模型为例,将上述方法嵌入FLAC数值软件,对完整岩石、单裂隙岩体及双裂隙岩体进行单轴压缩和双轴压缩蠕变数值试验。将数值模拟结果与试验结果对比,验证所提出的岩体裂隙时效扩展数值模拟方法的有效性。     

水力压裂裂缝穿层及扭转扩展的三维模拟分析

 应用并行有限元程序对水力压裂过程进行真三维数值模拟,实现对压裂裂缝起裂、扩展及扩展中的穿层、扭转行为的全过程分析;数值计算中无需假定压裂裂缝的起裂位置和扩展路径,即可根据实际岩体水力学模型的力学、水力学等边界条件,自动标定出压裂裂缝的三维扩展模式,并显示出该并行有限元程序对复杂地质力学条件下水力压裂过程三维模拟分析的适用性。通过对压裂裂缝扩展过程中孔隙压力分布、裂缝几何形状和尺寸的演化进行了解读,显示出压裂裂缝的扩展模式与地层分布密切相关。当生产层很薄或生产层与上下阻挡层岩性差别较大时,裂缝穿层现象突出,可能会出现压裂实际缝长远远小于设计缝长的现象;近场地应力差异、地层分布特征及岩体细观非均匀性都有可能诱发压裂裂缝扭转扩张。分析结果对水力压裂施工设计具有一定的参考价值。     

CT尺度砂岩渗流与应力关系试验研究

岩石渗流与应力关系研究是进行岩石渗流场与应力场耦合分析的关键。运用岩石高压三轴加载装置和渗透压加载装置,对砂岩进行了渗流与应力关系试验,同时借助SOMATOMPLUS螺旋CT扫描机进行实时观测。通过试验结果分析,推出了基于CT数的岩石孔隙率公式,在此基础上,分析了岩石应力–应变过程中孔隙率、渗透速度、渗流速度、微孔隙直径、渗透率等的变化规律。结果发现:岩石渗透参数的变化与岩石受力损伤–破裂过程密切相关。在初期的压密阶段,岩石的孔隙率、渗透速度、渗流速度、微孔隙直径、渗透率等随应力的增大而减小;当岩石的内部出现微裂纹后,岩石的孔隙率、渗透速度、渗流速度、微孔隙直径、渗透率等随应力的增大而增大,从宏观应力–应变关系看,从微裂纹出现到宏观破坏出现前,岩石还处于弹性变形阶段;当岩石宏观破坏时,岩石的孔隙率、渗透速度、渗流速度、微孔隙直径、渗透率等达到最大值。同时还发现:在渗透水压力作用下,受压砂岩的微裂纹起裂应力占岩石峰值强度的45%,而同样干岩样中微裂纹起裂应力占岩石峰值强度的55%以上,也就是说,渗透水压力使砂岩样的强度损失10%。     

砂砾岩储层水力裂缝扩展规律试验研究

由于砂砾岩储层中砾石的存在,导致压裂工程中水力裂缝扩展形态复杂,施工难度大。为了研究砂砾岩储层水力裂缝扩展规律,采用真三轴压裂模拟试验系统对天然砂砾岩露头岩样开展试验研究,分析水平应力差、砾石粒径和分布规律以及压裂液黏度和排量对水力裂缝扩展形态的影响。研究表明:砂砾岩储层的压裂裂缝形态由应力状态和砾石特征共同决定。以小粒径砾石为主的岩样中,砾石对裂缝扩展形态的影响较小,形成单一主裂缝,裂缝面平直;大粒径砾石为主的岩样中,水力裂缝沿着砾石界面偏转并形成分支裂缝,裂缝面扭曲。水平应力差较低、砾石无规则杂乱排布的情况下,分支裂缝的偏转更加明显,裂缝形态更加复杂。同时,水力裂缝由砾石内部起裂时的破裂压力更高。分支裂缝的产生以及裂缝的转向扩展导致裂缝宽度变窄;采用高黏度的胍胶压裂液能够有效增加裂缝宽度,有助于加砂和避免砂堵。     

页岩水力压裂裂缝形态的试验研究

为深入认识页岩储层水力裂缝延伸规律及其空间形态,采用真三轴岩土工程模型试验机、压裂泵压伺服控制系统、Disp声发射定位系统和工业CT扫描技术,建立了一套室内页岩水力压裂大型物理模拟试验方法,并通过试验后页岩试样水力裂缝的延伸与空间展布规律,初步探讨了页岩水力压裂网状裂缝的形成机理。结果表明：裂缝延伸时泵压曲线典型的锯齿状波动与裂缝网络的形成密切相关,是页岩体积压裂的一个明显特征。页岩层理面的发育程度、泵压大小和地应力状态对裂缝形态有显著影响,水力裂缝在层理面内的分叉、转向进而沟通天然裂缝是形成裂缝网络的关键,而层理面过弱或过强都不利于网状裂缝的形成;对层理面胶结强度适中的地层,地应力对裂缝的延伸有较大影响;在低排量且维持较低泵压时,裂缝易于转向,且更易形成网状裂缝,而达到体积压裂。建立的页岩水力压裂物理模拟试验方法及试验结果可为页岩气压裂优化设计等提供技术支持。     

Estimation of fracture flow considering the inhomogeneous structure of single rock fractures

Considering the safe, long-term isolation of energy byproducts, such as radioactive waste, one of the important parameters is the velocity of the groundwater flow through the void of rock masses and/or fractures. Although it is generally known that a natural rock fracture indicates a complex aperture distribution, the fracture is often ideally represented by a parallel plate model. The cubic law is applied to evaluate the hydraulic properties of fractured rock. From several previous research works, it is understood that the cubic law can be applied when the Reynolds number is less than 1.0 and that the inertia term can basically be ignored in such slow fracture flows. In this research work, two-dimensional seepage flow analyses, using the authors' proposed 2D model, in which the inertia term, the pressure term and the diffusion term are incorporated, are carried out for single fracture permeability tests under conditions which allow for the application of the cubic law. In comparing the results of the experiments with the results of the numerical simulation, the results of the simulation employing the 2D model show a good agreement with the experimental results; the 2D model can simulate the water flow in an inhomogeneous fracture more accurately than the simulation based on the local cubic law. From these simulation results, the fracture flow in an inhomogeneous structure is discussed, along with the local Reynolds number, and the resistance through the fracture geometry is considered. Consequently, under the condition of a mean Reynolds number of less than 1.0, the inertia terms do not affect the fracture flow, but the hydraulic resistance does affect the fracture flow.     

Effects of external temperature and dead volume on laboratory measurements of pore pressure and injected volume in a rock fracture

The accurate evaluation of pore pressure and injected volume is crucial for the laboratory characterization of hydromechanical responses of rock fractures. This study reports a series of laboratory experiments to systematically demonstrate the effects of external temperature and dead volume on laboratory measurements of pore pressure and injected volume in a rock fracture. We characterize the hydraulic aperture of the fracture as a function of effective normal stress using the exponential aperture model. This model is then employed to predict the pore pressure change and injected volume in the fracture without the influences of external temperature and dead volume. The external temperature changes in the cyclic loading test due to the Joule-Thompson effect for fluids. The effect of external temperature on pore pressure change in the fracture can be well explained by thermal pressurization of fluids. Our results also show that the external dead volume can significantly lower the pore pressure change in the fracture during the cyclic loading test under undrained conditions. The injected volume can also be substantially enlarged due to the external dead volume in a typical pore pressure system. Internal measurement of the pore pressure in the fracture using a fiber optic sensor cannot exclude the influences of external temperature and dead volume, primarily because of the good hydraulic communication between the fracture and pore pressure system. This study suggests that the effects of external temperature and dead volume on pore pressure response and injected volume should be evaluated for accurate laboratory characterization and inter-laboratory comparison.     

裂缝性页岩储层多级水力裂缝扩展规律研究

水力裂缝监测技术显示页岩储层中水力裂缝形态复杂,与传统的砂岩储层有本质区别,传统的裂缝扩展模型难以描述和解释页岩地层裂缝扩展的复杂性。基于线弹性断裂力学理论,针对页岩地层裂缝发育的特征,采用位移不连续法建立了一种多裂缝扩展二维数值模型,模拟了页岩地层中水力裂缝在随机分布的天然裂缝干扰下扩展的复杂形态。数值模拟显示,当相对净压力较大、天然裂缝与初始水力裂缝最优扩展方向夹角较大时,更倾向于形成复杂形态裂缝;水平应力差较大时,水力裂缝分叉的几率越小,通过对页岩露头的真三轴水力压裂物理模拟试验研究进一步验证了数值模拟方法的合理性,龙马溪组页岩地层的微地震监测解释结果与本数值模拟结果吻合良好。     

Hydro-mechanical interaction effects and channelling in three-dimensional fracture networks undergoing growth and nucleation

The flow properties of geo mechanically generated discrete fracture networks are examined in the context of channelling.Fracture networks are generated by growing fractures in tension,modelling the low permeability rock as a linear elastic material.Fractures are modelled as discrete surfaces which grow quasi-statically within a three-dimensional(3 D) volume.Fractures may have their locations specified as a simulation input,or be generated as a function of damage,quantified using the local variation in equivalent strain.The properties of the grown networks are shown to be a product of in situ stress,relative orientation of initial flaws,and competitive process of fracture interaction and growth.Fractures grow preferentially in the direction perpendicular to the direction of maximum tension and may deviate from this path due to mechanical fracture interaction.Flow is significantly channelled through a subset of the fractures in the full domain,consiste nt with observations of other real and simulated fractures.As the fracture networks grow,small changes in the geometry of the fractures lead to large changes in the locations and scale of primary flow channels.The flow variability and formation of channels are examined for two growing networks,one with a fixed amount of fractures,and another with nucleating fractures.The interaction between fractures is shown to modify the local stress field,and in turn the aperture of the fractures.Pathways for single-phase flow are the results of hydro-mechanical effects in fracture networks during growth.These are the results of changes to the topology of the network as well as the result of mechanical self-organisation which occurs during interaction leading to growth and intersection.     

The hydromechanical behaviour of a fracture: an in situ experimental case study

Relationships between flow distributions and mechanical opening in a single natural fracture are investigated in situ through field experiments, at a scale of about 1 m, in a granitic quarry. Experiments have been conducted at various injection flow-rates while the normal stress applied to the fracture was controlled by hydraulic flat jacks. Variations of the collected flow-rate (monitored through contiguous flow collectors distributed along the fracture periphery) with the injection pressure are fully reproducible. They show that the fracture opens only above a threshold pressure which increases with the externally applied stress. This threshold is non-zero with no applied flat jacks pressure which raises questions on the reliability of hydraulic jacking techniques for the measurement of the normal stress on preexisting fractures. It is shown that equivalent hydraulic aperture and mechanical opening are comparable only above a critical mean fracture opening estimated to be around 15–20 μm for the tested granite. For mean fracture openings smaller than this value, the standard time scale used for stress measurements distorts the results. It is also shown that channeling effects may control flow away from the injection hole so that the hydraulic jacking stress measurement technique may overestimate the mean normal stress acting on the fracture plane by as much as 4 MPa. It is concluded that hydraulic testing techniques for normal stress measurements should not include results from the fracture opening phase. Moreover, criteria should be established for validating results from the closing phase in order to demonstrate the absence of channelling effects. Finally, it is shown that, because of the elastic response of the rock, water injection in a fracture system decreases the interstitial pressure ahead of the increasing pressure front associated with the water flow.     

页岩气储层变排量压裂的造缝机制

裂缝性页岩储层压裂时,如何通过调节压裂泵排量,使水力裂缝沟通更多天然裂缝,是缝网压裂的关键。选取龙马溪组页岩露头开展真三轴水力压裂试验,压裂过程中以逐步阶梯式方式提高排量,实时分析变排量压裂时水力裂缝扩展行为以及与天然裂缝的沟通情况。试验结果表明：采用变排量压裂,初始阶段,随着压力逐渐升高,会在井筒周围的弱面附近产生多个待破裂点,随排量突然提高会使水力裂缝沿着多个破裂点动态分叉扩展。随着排量阶梯式升高,泵压明显升高,排量越大,泵压波动越大,水力裂缝与天然裂缝沟通形态越复杂,天然裂缝产状和缝内净压力等影响到水力裂缝进一步沟通程度。试验结果证实,变排量压裂可以激活更多天然裂缝,有助于形成复杂裂缝网络。     

水力压裂裂缝相互干扰应力阴影效应理论分析

针对油气田水力压裂工程中多裂缝相互干扰应力阴影效应问题,引入三类断裂力学干扰因子,采用权函数理论求解有限尺度地层剖面内部裂缝尖端应力强度因子,分析裂缝干扰与竞争起裂行为。研究结果表明:(1)基于权函数理论所得应力强度因子精度高于采用传统无限大裂缝模型所得应力强度因子;(2)提高破裂压力以增大应力阴影效应作用范围受局限,破裂压力达临界值时,扰动因子出现奇异性最值;(3)应力阴影效应对裂缝间距变化非常敏感,距离直井双翼裂缝扩展总长度一半位置相互干扰行为更加显著;(4)裂缝应力阴影效应随垂直地应力增大呈线性规律增强;(5)裂缝扩展角度变化造成裂缝相互干扰规律极其复杂,并依赖于破裂压力、诱导应力及地应力变化;(6)应力强度因子为负值的特殊闭合裂缝与常规水力裂缝干扰规律明显不同,干扰因子对定量分析闭合裂缝扰动也具有作用;(7)破裂压力与诱导应力交替作用可导致非等长裂缝竞争起裂效果产生差异性转变。研究结果在页岩油气、薄差油层及干热岩等资源开发的水力压裂工程中定量分析多裂缝干扰力学行为具有参考意义。