Principles of nonlinear MEMS-resonators regarding magnetic-field detection and the interaction with a capacitive read-out system

This paper presents a magnetic field sensor with capacitive read-out, whose active element is a micromachined mechanical resonator. The MEMS magnetic field sensor exploits the Lorentz force to detect external magnetic flux density through the displacement of the resonant structure, which can be measured with optical and capacitive sensing techniques. The micromachined U-shaped cantilever features a length of 2 mm, a base width of 90 μm and a thickness of 20 μm, and is manufactured in SOI technology. The designed sensor has a measured resonant frequency of 4.359 kHz for the fundamental mode and a calculated mass of the flexible structure of 24.5 ng. A quality factor in the order of 10⁴ at an ambient pressure of 0.3 Pa has been measured where a magnetic field resolution of 15 nT can be achieved. Although these arrangements are well suited to capacitively sense the vibrations caused by the Lorentz force on the current lead on the silicon part, care has to be taken to avoid undesired mutual interferences. A serious interference was observed in case of a DC bias voltage at the readout capacitance and a significant voltage drop caused by the current needed for the generation of the Lorentz force. This work investigates in detail this phenomenon as well as the complete physical transduction chain and improves the understanding of such microelectromechanical systems significantly. An analytical model of the electrostatic system is established including all relevant components and their interactions as well as the motion of the MEMS part. The importance of electrostatic back-action for a feasible detection limit for magnetic fields was recognized for the first time.     

Lorentz force based magnetic field sensor with optical readout

A miniaturized sensor capable for measuring high magnetic flux densities is presented. The magnetic flux density is converted into a movement of a micro machined U-shaped cantilever, which bears a thin film lead. The cantilever movement is accomplished by the Lorentz force acting on the electrical current. The cantilever poses as a deflecting mirror in an optical readout system. The ratio of the intensity of the light reflected by the front side of the cantilever to the intensity of the incident light is analyzed. The optical conversion principle was proven experimentally. It is well described by an optical near field model. To overcome measurement problems caused by the deformation due to mechanically prestressed cantilevers, an ac excitation was used for sensor characterization. A measurement range of the current–flux density product of 2.2 mA T was achieved by evaluating the peak light intensity. Beyond this limit more sophisticated signal analysis has to be applied. Depending on the rest position, a magnetic flux density of about 10 mT can be resolved with a current of 10 mA. The target of an upper limit of 50 T can be achieved by reducing the electrical current.     

Determination of exposure to engineered carbon nanoparticles using a self-sensing piezoresistive silicon cantilever sensor

A novel MEMS-based cantilever sensor with slender geometry is designed and fabricated to be implemented for determining personal exposure to carbon engineered nanoparticles (NPs). The function principle of the sensor is detecting the cumulative mass of NPs deposited on the cantilever surface as a shift in its resonant frequency. A self-sensing method with an integrated full Wheatstone bridge on the cantilever as a piezoresistive strain gauge is introduced for signal readout replacing optical sensing method. For trapping NPs to the cantilever surface, an electrostatic field is used. The calculated equivalent mass-induced resonant frequency shift due to NPs sampling is measured to be 11.78?±?0.01?ng. The proposed sensor exhibits a mass sensitivity of 8.33?Hz/ng, a quality factor of 1,230.68?±?78.67, and a temperature coefficient of the resonant frequency (TC _f ) of ?28.6?ppm/°C. These results and analysis indicate that miniaturized sensors based on self-sensing piezoresistive microcantilever can offer the performance to fulfill the requirements of real-time monitoring of NPs-exposed personnel.     

High-speed imaging by electromagnetic alloy actuated probe withdual spring

This paper describes a magnetically actuated cantilever with dual spring (cantilevered actuator and torsional cantilever) for a high-speed imaging of atomic force microscopy (AFM). A fabricated cantilever beam with a high resonant frequency is successfully actuated by electromagnetic force. A planar coil is placed on the free end of the cantilever beam and embedded in a groove formed on the silicon cantilever to get a large deflection. Static and dynamic mechanical characteristics of the fabricated probes have been measured. The experimental results of the mechanical properties are compared with the calculation results obtained from a finite element method. When flowing a current of ±10 mA, a static deflection of ±2 can be achieved by a cantilever with a length of 400 μm. The scanning speed of AFM is increased up to 1 mm/s by actuating the high resonant frequency cantilever in constant force mode     

一种采用压电复合音叉的电流传感器研究

针对当前非接触电流测量方式存在的灵敏度低、结构复杂等问题,本文提出了一种采用压电复合音叉的电流传感器用于非接触低频微弱电流测量,其结构由永磁体、弹性音叉、压电片及底座组成.当该传感器处于电线周围交变磁场中时,永磁体在磁场作用下产生扭矩并驱动弹性音叉臂及压电片产生形变;因压电效应,形变的压电片两端电极之间输出交变电压信号,从而实现电流的测量.由于磁扭矩效应,这种传感器具有较高的谐振灵敏度,大约是压电悬臂梁式电流传感器的4.0倍;在负载电阻为10 MΩ、频率为41.7 Hz时,灵敏度可达1.393 V/A,线性度约为0.57%.这种压电复合音叉式电流传感器模型还可以应用于微弱振动、磁场信号探测等.     

Sensing viscosity and density of glycerol–water mixtures utilizing a suspended plate MEMS resonator

A sensor suitable for online monitoring of viscosity and density of glycerol–water mixtures is presented. The device is based on Lorentz force excitation and features an integrated piezoresistive readout. The core sensing element is a rectangular vibrating plate suspended by four beam springs. Two of the plate-carrying springs comprise piezoresistors. With two additional resistors on the silicon rim they form a half Wheatstone-bridge. Through the conductive layer of the beam springs a sinusoidal excitation current is driven. In the field of a permanent magnet, the Lorentz force excites plate vibrations resulting in a bridge unbalance. We recorded both the frequency response of the amplitude and the phase of the bridge output. By evaluating the properties of the resonant system, it is possible to extract the glycerol percentage and, hence, the viscosity and the mass density of the mixtures.     

Terfenol-D/SAW谐振器/Terfenol-D复合磁传感器

设计了一种由超磁致伸缩材料Terfenol-D和SAW谐振器构成的复合磁传感器,在磁场作用下,Terfenol-D沿长度方向伸缩,并将应力应变传递至SAW谐振器,使其产生应变,造成谐振频率改变,通过测量SAW谐振器谐振频率的变化来测量磁场强度.分析了该磁传感器的传感原理,建立了该复合磁传感器的静态模型,对弹性敏感元件进行了受力分析,根据压磁方程和受力平衡得到该磁传感器的静态特性.实验结果表明:该复合磁传感器灵敏度可达341.6Hz/Oe,较Terfenol-D/SAW谐振器结构灵敏度提高了3倍;测量谐振频率的分辨率为1Hz,SAW谐振器频率稳定度为0.1×10-6时,该磁传感器对磁场的分辨率为10-6T.     

MEMS压电-磁电复合式振动驱动微能源的设计

在单一效应的MEMS振动驱动微能源的基础上,提出了一种MEMS压电-磁电复合振动驱动微能源器件。该微能源由八悬臂梁-中心质量块结构和永磁铁两部分组成,环境振动使中心质量块振动,PZT压电敏感单元由于压电效应产生电势差;同时中心质量块上集成的高密度线圈切割磁感线产生感应电动势,将压电转换与磁电转换相结合把振动能转换为电能。建立了该结构的数学模型并用有限分析软件Ansys12.0对该器件进行力学特性分析,最后对加工出的微能源进行性能测试。测试结果表明,该微能源谐振频率为8 Hz,易与环境发生共振;在共振条件下,施加1 gn 的加速度,器件压电发电开路输出电压峰峰值达154 mV,磁电发电开路输出电压峰-峰值达8 mV,有望为无线传感网络节点提供稳定的能源。     

An electromagnetic, vibration-powered generator for intelligent sensor systems

This paper describes the design of miniature generators capable of converting ambient vibration energy into electrical energy for use in powering intelligent sensor systems. Such a device acts as the power supply of a microsystem which can be used in inaccessible areas where wires can not be practically attached to provide power or transmit sensor data. Two prototypes of miniature generator are described and experimental results presented. Prototype A is based around two magnets coupled to a coil attached to a cantilever; prototype B is based around four magnets.

For prototype A, experimental results are given for its resonant frequency and its open circuit and loaded output as a function of vibration amplitude. For prototype B, experimental results are given for the generator’s Q factor in air and vacuum, its output voltage as a function of vibration amplitude as well as its magnetic field strength. This generator has been tested on a car engine and shown to produce a peak power of 3.9 mW with an average power of 157 μW.     

Adhesion release and yield enhancement of microstructures usingpulsed Lorentz forces

Adhesion of microstructures is an important failure mechanism in surface-micromachined devices. In this paper, a simple and effective method for releasing pinned microstructures is presented. The method uses the Lorentz force due to the interaction of a current with an external magnetic field to generate an upward force that frees the microstructures. The static and transient behavior of beams under the Lorentz force is examined. Critical values of current and pulse durations needed to release the microstructures are determined and verified with experimental data. Using this technique, previously pinned beams and rectangular plates have been released. The release technique is suitable for mass production environments since it is easily applied during the electrical testing of the device, thereby increasing the manufacturing yield     

A magnetoelectric-based broadband vibration energy harvester for powering wireless sensors

Scavenging vibration energy directly from environments is an attractive technique for potentially powering small and/or wireless electronic devices in a smart structure and system.In this paper,a novel broadband vibration energy harvester is designed and analyzed,which consists of three cantilever beams,two magnetoelectric(ME) transducers and a magnetic circuit.A theoretical model is developed to analyze the effects of the structure parameters on the frequency response and the electrical output for achievin...     

一种超磁致伸缩材料和声表面波谐振器构成的复合磁传感器

设计了一种新的超磁致伸缩材料和声表面波谐振器构成的复合磁传感器.该传感器将超磁致伸缩材料在磁场中产生的应力应变传递到声表面波谐振器上,改变其谐振频率,通过对谐振频率的检测进行磁场测量.该传感器可以用于静态和动态磁场测量,并且可用作无源、无线磁传感器.主要分析了该结构用于静态磁场测量的原理,给出了实验结果.传感器谐振频率的变化对于静态磁场变化的灵敏度可达132 Hz/Oe,谐振频率测量分辨率在1 Hz时,磁场测量分辨率可达10-7T数量级.     

—种超磁致伸缩材料和声表面波谐振器构成的复合磁传感器

设计了一种新的超磁致伸缩材料和声表面波谐振器构成的复合磁传感器．该传感器将超磁致伸缩材料在磁场中产生的应力应变传递到声表面波谐振器上，改变其谐振频率，通过对谐振频率的检测进行磁场测量．该传感器可以用于静态和动态磁场测量，并且可用作无源、无线磁传感器．主要分析了该结构用于静态磁场测量的原理，给出了实验结果．传感器谐振频率的变化对于静态磁场变化的灵敏度可达132Hz／Oe，谐振频率测量分辨率在1Hz时，磁场测量分辨率可达10^-7T数量级．     

A phase-locked loop frequency tracking system for portable microelectromechanical piezoresistive cantilever mass sensors

A closed-loop circuit is developed in this work for tracking the resonant frequency of silicon microcantilever mass sensors. The proposed closed-loop system is mainly based on a phase-locked loop (PLL) circuit. To lock onto the resonant frequency of the resonator, an actuation signal generated from a voltage-controlled oscillator is fed back to the input reference signal of the cantilever sensor. In addition to the PLL circuit, an instrumentation amplifier and an active low-pass filter are connected to the system for gaining the cantilever output signal and transforming a rectangular PLL output signal into a sinusoidal signal used for sensor actuation, respectively. To demonstrate the functionality of the system, a self-sensing silicon cantilever resonator with a built-in piezoresistive Wheatstone bridge is fabricated and integrated with the circuit. A piezoactuator is employed to actuate the cantilever into resonance. From the measurement results, the integrated closed-loop system is successfully employed to characterize a 9.4 kHz cantilever sensor under ambient temperature cross-sensitivity yielding a sensor temperature coefficient of ?32.8 ppm/°C. In addition to it, the sensor was also exposed to exhaled human breath condensates and e-cigarette aerosols to test the sensor sensitivity obtained from mass-loading effects. With a high frequency stability (i.e., a frequency deviation as low as 0.02 Hz), this developed system is intended to support the miniaturization of the instrumentation modules for cantilever-based nanoparticle detectors (CANTORs).     

A trapezoidal cantilever density sensor based on MEMS technology

A trapezoidal cantilever density sensor is developed based on micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) technology. The sensor measures fluid density through the relationship between the density and the resonant frequency of the cantilever immersed in the fluid. To improve the sensitivity of the sensor, the modal and harmonic response analyses of trapezoidal and rectangular cantilevers are simulated by ANSYS software. The higher the resonant frequency of the cantilever immersed in the fluid, the higher the sensitivity of the sensor; the higher the resonant strain value, the easier the detection of the output signal of the sensor. Based on the results of simulation, the trapezoidal cantilever is selected to measure the densities of dimethyl silicone and toluene at the temperature ranges of 30 to 55 °C and 26 to 34 °C, respectively. Experimental results show that the trapezoidal cantilever density sensor has a good performance.     

基于正弦力激励的预紧压电式力传感器的研究

为了校准预紧的压电式力传感器动态灵敏度并研究其频响特性和预紧结构的设计,首先介绍了正弦力激励的方法并建立校准数学模型。分别在传感器正立和倒立安装方式下进行测试,通过对比试验研究传感器端部等效质量引入的惯性力对传感器动态灵敏度的影响。然后根据传感器固有频率的落球测试方法,将传感器和附加质量块安装于振动系统。通过白噪声激励得到系统安装谐振频率,进而研究传感器有效频率范围和测量精度与安装谐振频率的关系。最后通过理论分析,说明传感器非对称设计的原因。试验结果表明,当附加质量块质量约为传感器质量的121倍时,可忽略端部等效质量对灵敏度标定的影响;压电式力传感器固有频率高达46kHz,但其有效使用频率范围受安装谐振频率限制,当试验频率与安装谐振频率比 时,压电式传感器精度等级为1%;传感器两端等效质量不同,预紧结构是非对称的,用于动态测试时要将端部等效质量轻的一端连接到被测物体。本研究结果可为开展传感器的现场标定和预紧结构的设计提供理论依据。     

GaAs基PHEMT加速度传感器的研究

PHEMT结构一种高电子迁移率晶体管,以其高频和低噪声等方面的优越性,成为当今微电子领域中最活跃的研究主题之一。将其良好的力敏特性应用在加速度计方面更是成为前沿的研究方向。基于GaAs基PHEMT结构压阻效应,设计加工出一种悬臂梁式微加速度传感器,通过力作用在加速度计上,改变PHEMT结构漏极电流的输出,并通过外围测试电路来检测该电流变化,从而实现力电转换。文中,对其基本原理和结构设计进行阐述,并进行力学特性的研究。结果表明,在动态测试下,PHEMT结构的漏极输出电流与栅压、漏压之间的关系与静态测试I-V特性曲线保持一致。该加速度计具有良好的线性特性,经过测试在饱和区灵敏度为0.177 mV/gn。     

Latching micromagnetic optical switch

In this paper, we report a new type of latching micromagnetic optical switch. The key component of this optical switch is a cantilever made of soft magnetic material with a reflective surface serving as a mirror. The cantilever has two stable positions, therefore two stable states for the device, with presence of an external magnetic field. Input optical signal to the device is switched selectively to one of the two output ports when the device transitions between the two states upon short electromagnetic actuations. The optical switch is bistable because the cantilever has a tendency to align with the external magnetic field, and the torque to align the cantilever can be bidirectional depending on the angle between the cantilever and the magnetic field. Switching between the two stable states is accomplished by momentarily changing the direction and/or the magnitude of the cantilever's magnetization by passing a short current pulse through a planar coil underneath the cantilever. In either of its stable state, the cantilever is held in position by the combined influence of the static external magnetic field and mechanical force, such as from a physical stopper or a mechanical torque produced by the torsion flexures supporting the cantilever. Stable vertical position for the cantilever is obtained by using a tilted external magnetic field. When the cantilever mirror is at this UP state, light is reflected to the desired output port. Large angle deflection and bistable latching operations have been demonstrated. The measured mechanical switching speed between the two states of the prototype is 3.2 ms. Optical insertion loss is -4 dB, and the energy consumption is 44 mJ for each switching event.     

Experimental study on band merging of non-linear multi-band piezoelectric energy harvester into single broadband using magnetic coupling

The operational bandwidth of Vibration Energy Harvesters (VEH) is area of concern due to stochastic, time-varying, random and multi-frequency nature of available environmental vibrating sources. Most of the VEH have narrow bandwidth providing usable power at specific frequencies. Efforts have been made to increase the frequency range by introducing non-linear structures and techniques. In this paper, multi-band output of the non-linear Piezoelectric Energy Harvester (PEH) is transformed into single wider band output using additional non-linear phenomenon. Dual region operation of PEH results into two separate band output. First region is the outcome of beam resonance and Centre of Gravity (CoG) shift whereas second region is due to the non-linear behaviour of cylinders. In this work, these separate bands are merged to form a single wider band. For merging these two bands and enhancing the bandwidth of PEH, additional phenomenon is introduced using two permanent magnets. A varying magnetic field by changing the distance between magnets changes stiffness of the cantilever beam and that leads to a change in the resonant frequency of band-I. Thus, the overall process shifts band-I towards band-II. In this work, the two separate bands are merged to have one wider band providing 53.22% more frequency coverage than our previous work with a bandwidth of 47.5 Hz. This band includes vibrational frequency range of 25.65–73.15 Hz at 1.4 g acceleration. Cylinder material and its effect with magnetic interaction is also studied. The magnetic force between two permanent magnets is measured experimentally. Effect of magnetic force on centre resonant frequency of beam is compared with experimental and simulated results. Effect of magnetic force on bandwidth of the device is studied.

     

The origin of low-order and high-order impedance-coupled resonant modes in piezoelectric-excited millimeter-sized cantilever (PEMC) sensors: Experiments and finite element models

The characteristics of both low-order and high-order resonant modes exhibited by piezoelectric-excited millimeter-sized cantilever (PEMC) sensors were investigated to determine the coupling between electrical impedance and resonant modes observed experimentally. Experimentally measured frequency response spectra correlated well (<5% difference; n = 10 sensors) with three-dimensional (3D) finite element model (FEM) calculations. FEM frequency response and eigen frequency analyses revealed the sensor's resonant modes were complex, and characterized by combinations of transverse, torsional, longitudinal, buckling, and lateral motion. The magnitude of average integrated charge and current density change in the piezoelectric (lead zirconate titanate; PZT) layer at resonance directly correlated with coupling of resonant modes to electrical impedance measurement. Of the 32 resonant modes predicted by eigen frequency analysis in the frequency range 0-1 MHz, only a subset of 17 modes produced charge and current density changes in the PZT layer greater than off-resonance values. Thus, only the subset of resonant modes was coupled to electrical impedance changes and could be exploited for sensing. Transverse, longitudinal, and lateral motion of the piezoelectric layer coupled strongly with the PZT electrical impedance, while torsional and buckling motion did not. Electrically decoupled resonant modes were made measurable by introducing minor geometric asymmetry in composite layer alignment. High-order modes were shown experimentally to exhibit sub-femtogram sensitivity to mass-changes in air. Such modes consisted of combinations of transverse and longitudinal modes in both sensor layers.