Classification of the damage condition of preloaded reinforced concrete slabs using parameter-based acoustic emission analysis

A parameter-based acoustic emission (AE) technique is applied to AE signals acquired in physical experiments carried out on a series of predamaged reinforced concrete slabs. Three reinforced concrete slabs without shear reinforcement with dimensions of 1.50 × 1.50 × 0.23 m are subjected to cycles of a concentrated centric load with increasing peak values up to failure. The slabs had been previously exposed to impact loads in rockfall experiments and exhibit an unknown damage condition yet to be determined. Acoustic emissions are recorded during the loading and unloading cycles and evaluated. An analysis of load ratio and calm ratio associated with the Kaiser effect is performed. Damage classification is carried out successfully. Definitions of load ratio and calm ratio are reconsidered and specified. A static preloading of the slabs is approximated. The relationship between cracking process, failure mechanism and the acoustic emissions that occur is described and discussed.     

Acoustic emission monitoring of rockbursts during TBM-excavated headrace tunneling at Jinping Ⅱ hydropower station

To better understand the mechanical properties of marble at Jinping II hydropower station, this paper examines the changes of brittle rocks in excavation damaged zones(EDZs) before and after excavation of tunnel with the tunnel boring machine(TBM). The paper attempts to employ the acoustic emission(AE) to study the AE characteristics and distribution of rockburst before and after TBM-excavated tunnel. It is known that the headrace tunnel #2, excavated by the drill-and-blast(D&B) method, is ahead of the headrace tunnel #3 that is excavated by TBM method. The experimental sub-tunnel #2–1, about 2000 m in depth and 13 m in diameter, between the two tunnels is scheduled. In the experimental sub-tunnel #2–1, a large number of experimental boreholes are arranged, and AE sensors are installed within 10 m apart from the wall of the headrace tunnel #3. By tracking the microseismic signals in rocks, the location, frequency, quantity, scope and intensity of the microseismic signals are basically identifed. It is observed that the AE signals mainly occur within 5 m around the rock wall, basically lasting for one day before tunnel excavation and a week after excavation. Monitoring results indicate that the rockburst signals are closely related to rock stress adjustment. The rock structure has a rapid self-adjustment capacity before and after a certain period of time during tunneling. The variations of rock stresses would last for a long time before reaching a fnal steady state. Based on this, the site-specifc support parameters for the deep tunnels can be accordingly optimized.     

Numerical simulation of a jointed rock block mechanical behavior adjacent to an underground excavation and comparison with physical model test results

Mechanical behavior of a jointed rock mass with non-persistent joints located adjacent to a free surface on the wall of an excavation was simulated under without and with support stress on the free surface using approximately 0.5 m cubical synthetic jointed rock blocks having 9 non-persistent joints of length 0.5 m, width 0.1 m and a certain orientation arranged in an en echelon and a symmetrical pattern using PFC^3D software package. The joint orientation was changed from one block to another to study the effect of joint orientation on strength, deformability and failure modes of the jointed blocks. First the micro-mechanical parameters of the PFC^3D model were calibrated using the macro mechanical properties of the synthetic intact standard cylindrical specimens and macro mechanical properties of a limited number of physical experiments performed on synthetic jointed rock blocks of approximately 0.5 m cubes. Under no support stress, the synthetic jointed rock blocks exhibited the same three failure modes: (a) intact rock failure, (b) step-path failure and (c) planar failure under both physical experiments and numerical simulations for different orientations. The jointed blocks which failed under intact rock failure mode and planar or step-path failure mode produced high and low jointed block strengths, respectively. Three phases of convergence of free surface were discovered. The joint orientation and support stress played important roles on convergence magnitude. The average increment of jointed block strength turned out to be about 10, 7.9 and 6.6 times the support stress when support stresses of 0.06 MPa, 0.20 MPa and 0.40 MPa were applied, respectively. The modeling results offer some guideline in support design for underground excavations.     

Dynamic mechanical behavior of some carbonate rocks

The effects of porosity, unit volume weight and Schmidt hardness on the quasi-static and dynamic compressive behaviors of some carbonate rocks were investigated using classical servo-hydraulic testing machine and split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) testing system, respectively. For dynamic compression testing, cylindrical samples 18 mm in diameter and 11 mm long were obtained from rock samples of light and dark travertines, lymra and beige marbles. For quasi-static compression testing, cylindrical samples were prepared according to the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) standards. The results of the physical and mechanical properties of the rock samples have shown that the porosity, unit volume weight and Schmidt hardness, have significant effects on the compressive stress–strain behavior of the rock samples under dynamic loading. The results have also shown that the beige limestone samples have significantly higher dynamic compressive strength than the other carbonate rock samples.     

单轴压缩下粗砂岩临界破坏的多频段声发射耦合判据和前兆识别特征

为寻求岩石临界破坏判据和前兆特征,在粗砂岩单轴压缩声发射(AE)试验的基础上,研究了岩石破坏过程中AE信号频段占比随应力变化特征,重点分析高、低两个特征频段占比随应力变化规律,同时对两个特征频段中不同应力水平下AE幅值关联维数进行计算与分析,并建立了基于频段占比与应力间关系的多频段AE信号主频识别判据模型。研究表明:AE信号频段占比的分布特征能较好地诠释岩石破坏所经历的主要过程;岩石破坏过程中,较低频段AE信号(31.25~46.875 k Hz)占比先减小后增大,较高频段AE信号(140.625~156.25 k Hz)占比先增大后减小。在临界破坏状态下,高、低两个特征频段占比分别出现最大值和最小值,且二者中AE幅值关联维数都下降到最低。通过对特征频段占比与应力之间的耦合分析,利用特征频段占比、AE幅值关联维数的变化可更准确地对岩石临界破坏前兆进行判别和预测。     

莱州花岗岩应变岩爆实验声发射频谱特征分析

深部岩爆的发生对应着岩石的猛烈破坏,同时产生弹性应力波,相应的就会有声发射现象发生。声发射频谱特征的变化能够反映岩爆发生的本质信息,因此开展此方面的研究有着重要的理论与应用价值。利用自主研发的深部岩爆过程模拟实验系统,进行了花岗岩循环加卸载条件下的岩爆声发射模拟实验。首先对花岗岩的应变岩爆实验过程进行划分,分析其声发射释能特征;其次,选取实验过程中的关键特征点声发射波形信息并对其进行傅里叶变换,观察各关键特征点的原始波形特征、二维频谱特征,寻求岩爆时刻的本征频谱;从其二维频谱功率谱图上,获取各个关键特征点的频谱响应特征和其对应的幅值特征,研究其频谱响应规律。研究结果表明:岩爆时刻区别于其他阶段最明显的特点就是声发射表现为连续型波形,低频高幅值特征。     

Design considerations for an underground room in a hard rock subjected to a high horizontal stress field at Rana Gruber,Norway

Rana Gruber AS is an iron mining company in the North of Norway, and it operates Kvannevann mine 30 km east of Mo i Rana. The Kvannevann mine is located in a foliated gneiss host rock, with an ore body about 70 m wide and more than 300 m deep. The mine has been in operation for many years using sublevel stoping, and is now changing to sublevel caving. Experience from past mining activity in the infrastructure preparation for the new mining method indicates that the mine is located in a hard, brittle rock mass with high horizontal stresses. Stress measurements have been made from time to time. The measurement results indicate a major principal stress of 20 MPa perpendiculars to the strike of the ore, and a minor principal stress of 10 MPa parallel to the strike of the ore, which is 10–15 times higher than the theoretical vertical stress caused by gravity at the measured location. In addition to the high horizontal stress, lessons learned regarding failure and rock support during the underground excavation need to be considered for designing and excavating a new canteen room (B × H = 9 × 8 m) at the mine. Numerical modelling is utilised to be able to include all of the adverse conditions for consideration.     

Multiaxial tensile–compressive strengths and failure criterion of plain high-performance concrete before and after high temperatures

Multiaxial tensile–compressive tests were performed on 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm cubic specimens of plain high-performance concrete (HPC) at all kinds of stress ratios after exposure to normal and high temperatures of 20, 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600 °C, using a large static–dynamic true triaxial machine. Friction-reducing pads were three layers of plastic membrane with glycerine in-between for the compressive loading plane; the tensile loading planes of concrete samples were processed by attrition machine, and then the samples were glued-up with the loading plate with structural glue. The failure mode characteristic of specimens and the direction of the crack were observed and described, respectively. The three principally static strengths in the corresponding stress state were measured. The influence of the temperatures, stress ratios, and stress states on the triaxial strengths of HPC after exposure to high temperatures were also analyzed respectively. The experimental results showed that the uniaxial compressive strength of plain HPC after exposure to high temperatures does not decrease completely with the increase in temperature, the ratios of the triaxial to its uniaxial compressive strength depend on brittleness–stiffness of HPC after different high temperatures besides the stress states and stress ratios. On this basis, the formula of a new failure criterion with the temperature parameters under multiaxial tensile–compressive stress states for plain HPC is proposed. This study is helpful to reveal the multiaxial mechanical properties of HPC structure enduring high temperatures, and provides the experimental and theory foundations (testing data and correlated formula) for fire-resistant structural design, and for structural safety assessment and maintenance after fire.     

不同围压下岩石声发射不可逆性及其主破裂前特征信息试验研究

 通过对花岗岩在不同围压下循环加卸载声发射(AE)试验,得到岩石加卸载损伤破坏过程中高、低频通道中AE累计振铃计数、岩石应力与时间的关系。基于此,研究岩石AE的不可逆性特征。同时运用快速傅里叶变换FFT逆变换对Kaiser点AE信号进行消噪,并通过FFT分析消噪后信号的频谱特征,探求岩石主破裂前特征信息。研究结果表明：(1) 两通道中接收到的AE振铃计数整体变化趋势基本相同,所揭示的Kaiser效应和Felicity效应规律基本一致;两通道中AE振铃计数特征主要区别在于数量不同;(2) Kaiser点主频分布在46.39～70.80与151.37～166.99 kHz范围内。岩石主破裂前,随轴向应力水平增加,低频通道中Kaiser点主频整体变化趋势由较低频向较高频转移,高频通道中由较高频向较低频转移;(3) 花岗岩Kaiser效应应力上限值为极限强度的65%左右。Kaiser点的主频特征及变化规律,可为岩石的损伤破坏评价提供依据。     

Stiffness and strength parameters for hardening soil model of soft and stiff Bangkok clays

A comprehensive set of experimental data on Bangkok subsoils from oedometer and triaxial tests are analysed in this paper in order to determine the stiffness and strength parameters for Hardening Soil Model. The parameters determined are the Mohr–Coulomb effective stress strength parameters together with the stiffness parameters; tangent stiffness for primary oedometer loading, secant stiffness in undrained and drained triaxial tests, unloading/reloading stiffness and the power for stress level dependency of stiffness. The oedometer data are obtained from three different Bangkok soil layers: soft clay at 6–8 m depths; medium clay at 12–14 m depths; and stiff clay at 15.5–18 m depths. The triaxial tests data are carried out for soft and stiff clays at depths of 5.5–6 m and of 16–18 m under both undrained and drained conditions, respectively. Finally, two sets of parameters for soft and stiff Bangkok clays are numerically calibrated against undrained and drained triaxial results using PLAXIS finite element software.     

Correlation of rock cutting tests with field performance of a TBM in a highly fractured rock formation: A case study in Kozyatagi-Kadikoy metro tunnel,Turkey

This paper presents and discusses detailed field and laboratory studies concerning boreability prediction of tunnel boring machines (TBMs) used in Kozyatagi-Kadikoy metro tunnels in Istanbul in a highly fractured rock formation. The determination of some design parameters and performance prediction of a tunnel boring machine (TBM) are carried out using full-scale rock cutting test. The intact rock samples having minimum sizes of 1.0 × 0.7 × 0.7 m are obtained from shale and limestone (Kartal Formation) along the tunnel line. The rock samples are subjected to full-scale laboratory rock cutting tests with different depth of cut and cutter spacing values using a constant cross section (CCS) disc cutter of 330 mm in diameter. Cutter forces, i.e., thrust force, rolling force and specific energy values are recorded for each cut. The results of the tests are first used to calculate TBM design and performance parameters such as torque and thrust requirements and cutting rates. In the second part of the research, the field performance of the TBM is recorded with the aid of data acquisition system installed within TBM and the predicted performance and design values obtained from full-scale rock cutting tests are compared with the field values. It is observed that fractured characteristics of the rock formation affect tremendously TBM performance and predicted values differ from the field data in some extend. It is believed that the results will serve as a guide for efficient selection and use of TBMs.     

Stress-dependence of the permeability and porosity of sandstone and shale from TCDP Hole-A

We utilize an integrated permeability and porosity measurement system to measure the stress dependent permeability and porosity of Pliocene to Pleistocene sedimentary rocks from a 2000 m borehole. Experiments were conducted by first gradually increasing the confining pressure from 3 to 120 MPa and then subsequently reducing it back to 3 MPa. The permeability of the sandstone remained within a narrow range (10^?14–10^?13 m²). The permeability of the shale was more sensitive to the effective confining pressure (varying by two to three orders of magnitude) than the sandstone, possibly due to the existence of microcracks in the shale. Meanwhile, the sandstone and shale showed a similar sensitivity of porosity to effective pressure, whereby porosity was reduced by about 10–20% when the confining pressure was increased from 3 to 120 MPa. The experimental results indicate that the fit of the models to the data points can be improved by using a power law instead of an exponential relationship. To extrapolate the permeability or porosity under larger confining pressure (e.g. 300 MPa) using a straight line in a log–log plot might induce unreasonable error, but might be adequate to predict the stress dependent permeability or porosity within the experimental stress range. Part of the permeability and porosity decrease observed during loading is irreversible during unloading.     

Effects of limestone replacement ratio on the sulfate resistance of Portland limestone cement mortars exposed to extraordinary high sulfate concentrations

A comparative study has been performed on the sulfate resistance of Portland limestone cement (PLC) mortars exposed to extraordinary high sulfate concentrations (200 g/l). PLCs have been prepared by using two types of clinkers having different C₃S/C₂S ratios and interstitial phase morphologies. Blended cements have been prepared by replacing 5%, 10%, 20% and 40% of clinker with limestone. Cubic (50 × 50 × 50 mm) and prismatic (25 × 25 × 285 mm) cement mortars were prepared. After two months initial water curing, these samples were exposed to three different sulfate solutions (Na₂SO₄ at 20 °C and 5 °C, MgSO₄ at 5 °C). Solutions were not refreshed and pH values of solutions were monitored during the testing stage. The compressive strength and length changes of samples have been monitored for a period of 1 year. Additional microstructural analyses have been conducted by XRD and SEM/EDS studies. Results indicated that in general, limestone replacement ratio and low temperature negatively affect the sulfate resistance of cement mortars. Additionally, clinkers of high C₃S/C₂S ratios with dendritic interstitial phase structure were found to be more prone to sulfate attack in the presence of high amounts of limestone.From the results, it is postulated that in the absence of solution change, extraordinary high sulfate content modified the mechanism of sulfate reactions and formation of related products. At high limestone replacement ratios, XRD and SEM/EDS studies revealed that while ettringite is the main deterioration product for the samples exposed to Na₂SO₄, gypsum and thaumasite formation were dominant products of deterioration in the case of MgSO₄ attack. It can be concluded that, the difference between reaction mechanisms of Na₂SO₄ and MgSO₄ attack to limestone cement mortars strongly depends on the pH change of sulfate solutions.     

不同应力路径下岩桥试验的声发射特征研究

 岩质边坡中岩桥贯通是导致边坡失稳的重要因素,通过开展不同岩桥长度岩样的常规三轴加荷、三轴卸荷以及三轴加卸荷试验,研究在不同应力路径下岩桥贯通破坏过程中的声发射特征,以及围压和岩桥长度对声发射特征的影响。结果表明：岩石压密阶段与线弹性变形阶段声发射事件较少,塑性阶段声发射事件明显增多,破坏阶段声发射计数率、累计能量以及幅值均达到峰值。声发射特征的明显变化可为紧接的岩样破坏提供预警作用,幅值变化较其他指标更为敏感,因此幅值的监测对于各阶段演化以及破坏预警更有效。本试验中,岩桥试样达到峰值强度后不会立即跌落至残余强度,而是出现2次应力跌落,应力跌落均对应声发射特征达到峰值,2次应力跌落中会出现“平静期”或“峰后回升”现象,其声发射特征与塑性阶段相似,但幅值、计数率与累计能量均大于塑性变形阶段,表明在这一阶段岩样裂纹仍以较快速率扩展,最终导致岩桥贯通破坏。不同应力路径下累计能量由大到小依次为：三轴加卸荷、三轴卸荷和常规三轴。随着岩桥长度与围压的增加,声发射计数率峰值和累计能量逐步增长,破坏程度更加剧烈。     

Effect of air-flow rate and turning frequency on bio-drying of dewatered sludge

Sludge bio-drying is an approach for biomass energy utilization, in which sludge is dried by means of the heat generated by aerobic degradation of its organic substances. The study aimed at investigating the interactive influence of air-flow rate and turning frequency on water removal and biomass energy utilization. Results showed that a higher air-flow rate (0.0909 m³ h^?1 kg^?1) led to lower temperature than did the lower one (0.0455 m³ h^?1 kg^?1) by 17.0% and 13.7% under turning per two days and four days. With the higher air-flow rate and lower turning frequency, temperature cumulation was almost similar to that with the lower air-flow rate and higher turning frequency. The doubled air-flow rate improved the total water removal ratio by 2.86% (19.5 g kg^?1 initial water) and 11.5% (75.0 g kg^?1 initial water) with turning per two days and four days respectively, indicating that there was no remarkable advantage for water removal with high air-flow rate, especially with high turning frequency. The heat used for evaporation was 60.6–72.6% of the total heat consumption (34,400–45,400 kJ). The higher air-flow rate enhanced volatile solids (VS) degradation thus improving heat generation by 1.95% (800 kJ) and 8.96% (3200 kJ) with turning per two days and four days. With the higher air-flow rate, heat consumed by sensible heat of inlet air and heat utilization efficiency for evaporation was higher than the lower one. With the higher turning frequency, sensible heat of materials and heat consumed by turning was higher than lower one.     

组合煤岩冲击破坏电磁辐射规律研究

大量理论研究和物理试验已经证实煤岩变形破裂过程中会产生宽频带的电磁辐射信号,因此研究坚硬顶板–煤体–底板所构成的组合煤岩变形破裂电磁辐射规律对于预测预报煤岩动力灾害具有重要的意义。采用MTS815伺服加载以及Disp–24声电测试系统对组合煤岩变形破裂所产生的电磁辐射及声发射信号进行了测定,试验结果表明,试样在发生冲击破坏前,电磁辐射强度呈小幅度上升的波动趋势,且冲击破坏前兆会产生突变;而声发射信号计数率在试样冲击破坏时将急剧增加并达到最大值,随后产生突降。电磁辐射与声发射信号峰值位置出现的时间并不同步,电磁辐射信号的最大值出现在试样变形破坏的峰后阶段,而声发射信号的最大值位置则出现在试样的峰值强度处。电磁辐射信号出现峰值时声发射相对较弱,且声发射信号出现峰值时其电磁辐射强度也相对较弱。依此规律,可以对冲击矿压的危险性进行正确地评价和预测预报。     

Estimating geometrical and mechanical REV based on synthetic rock mass models at Brunswick Mine

This paper uses a case study from Brunswick Mine in Canada to determine a representative elementary volume (REV) of a jointed rock mass in the vicinity of important underground infrastructure. The equivalent geometrical and mechanical property REV sizes were determined based on fracture systems modeling and numerical experiments on a synthetic rock mass. Structural data collected in massive sulphides were used to generate a large fracture system model (FSM), 40 m×40 m×40 m. This FSM was validated and subsequently sampled to procure 40 cubic specimens with a height to width ratio of 2 based on sample width from 0.05 to 10 m. The specimens were introduced into a 3D particle flow code (PFC3D) model to create synthetic rock mass (SRM) samples. The geometrical REV of the rock mass was determined based on the number of fractures in each sampled volume (P₃₀) and the volumetric fracture intensity (P₃₂) of the samples. The mechanical REV was estimated based on the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and elastic modulus (E) of the synthetic rock mass samples.The REV size of the rock mass was determined based on a series of statistical tests. The T-test was used to assess whether the means of the samples were statistically different from each other and the F-test to compare the calculated variance. Finally, the coefficient of variation, for the synthetic rock mass geometrical and mechanical properties, was plotted against sample size. For this particular site the estimated geometrical REV size of the rock mass was 3.5 m×3.5 m×7 m, while the mechanical property REV size was 7 m×7 m×14 m. Consequently, for engineering purposes the largest volume (7 m×7 m×14 m) can be considered as the REV size for this rock mass.     

An investigation of the excavation damaged zone at the KAERI underground research tunnel

The disturbance of a rock due to a blasting impact or stress redistribution can significantly influence the overall performance of an underground excavation. In order to investigate the characteristics of the EDZ (Excavation Damaged Zone) developed during the construction of the KAERI underground research tunnel in Korea (KURT), which is an underground research tunnel for a Korean high-level radioactive waste disposal program, various in situ and laboratory tests were carried out. A Goodman jack test showed that the deformation modules were influenced by a blasting to a depth of 1.5–2 m. With empirical equations, the EDZ could be predicted as 0.3–2.3 m. The average RQD from the rock cores at 0–2 m, where the blasting impact was significant, was 17% lower than that from the deeper regions. From the laboratory tests, the EDZ size could be estimated to be around 0.9–1.5 m. The elastic modules in the EDZ were decreased by about 56%. From a borehole radar reflection survey and a subtracting technique, it was possible to detect the new reflectors generated by a tunnel blasting. By using the determined EDZ size and the properties from the laboratory and in situ tests, a sensitivity analysis was performed. From the sensitivity analysis with seven parameters, it was possible to determine that the in situ stress ratio, Young’s modules, and EDZ size were the three main parameters.     

Study on the influence of confining stress on TBM performance in granite rock by linear cutting test

Rock stress problems induced by overburden or anisotropic stresses are significant to the TBM tunneling. In this paper, the effect of different confining stressed conditions on TBM performance are investigated by using full-scale cutting tests with large intact granite specimens (1000 mm × 1000 mm × 600 mm). In these tests, the effects of confining stresses on the normal force, rolling force, the cutting coefficient and specific energy are analyzed. It is found that the confining stress has significant impact on the normal force and rolling force. Specifically, for the same cutting spacing and penetration depth, the normal force increases with increasing confining stress due to enhancement of the rock resistance strength; meanwhile the rolling force decreases gradually with increasing confining stress. The stress deviation between two confining directions affects the optimum penetration that corresponds to small specific energy. The results provide better understanding of the effect of confining stress on the TBM performance and also recommend some guidelines for TBM tunneling under stressed geological condition.     

真三轴卸载煤爆实验破坏特征演化分析

对煤岩体进行真三轴卸载煤爆实验,获得了其临界破坏应力、破坏碎屑分形维数及声发射参数特征,引入处理声发射波形的短时傅里叶变换方法获得时频演化特征,利用离散元颗粒流数值方法对该过程进行模拟揭示其细观损伤机制。研究结果表明:煤爆临界破坏应力状态为28.6 MPa/17.8 MPa/8 MPa,煤爆时刻声发射能量快速释放,能率达到峰值;量测粒径尺寸大于10 mm的喷出碎屑尺寸,按照粒度-数量方法算得的分形维数值为2.04;声发射时频特性在煤岩体煤爆实验过程中经历了由单峰低幅低频向双峰高频演化再过渡到单峰高幅高频,最后变为多峰高幅低频的过程,预示着破裂源由单一小尺度不断向复杂大尺度演化的损伤机制;通过颗粒流软件对煤爆过程进行模拟,发现煤岩模型试件内部主要存在张拉损伤,而随着模型加卸载不断进行,剪切破裂逐级增多,与声发射时频特性相吻合。