Can differences in learning strategies explain the benefits of learning from static and dynamic visualizations?

The effects of dynamic and static visualizations in understanding physical principles of fish locomotion were investigated. Seventy-five students were assigned to one of three conditions: a text-only, a text with dynamic visualizations, or a text with static visualizations condition. During learning, subjects were asked to think aloud. Learning outcomes were measured by tests assessing verbal factual knowledge, pictorial recall as well as transfer. Learners in the two visualization conditions outperformed those in the text-only condition for transfer and pictorial recall tasks, but not for verbal factual knowledge tasks. Analyses of the think-aloud protocols revealed that learners had generated more inferences in the visualization conditions as opposed to the text-only condition. These results were mirrored by students’ self-reported processing demands. No differences were observable between the dynamic and the static condition concerning any of the learning outcome measures. However, think-aloud protocols revealed an illusion of understanding when learning with dynamic as opposed to static visualizations. Furthermore, learners with static visualizations tended to play the visualizations more often. The results stress the importance of not only using outcome-oriented, but also process-oriented approaches to gain deeper insight into learning strategies when dealing with various instructional materials.     

Does modality play a role? Visual‐verbal cognitive style and multimedia learning

The study presented in this paper aimed to examine the effect of visual and verbal cognitive style on learning from different types of visualization and modalities of explanatory text. Learning materials in the form of either computer‐based animation or a series of static pictures with written or spoken explanations were presented to 197 students. We found that a more developed visual cognitive style was related to a better learning outcome, when learning from a combination of static pictures and written text. Higher developed visualizers achieved poorer learning outcomes when learning with an animation and written text. The results are partially in line with an ability‐as‐compensator effect and the expertise reversal effect. Additionally, we found a modality effect as the versions with spoken text provided better results on learning outcome than the versions with written text regardless of the prominence of visual cognitive style. No significant interaction effects were found regarding verbal cognitive style.     

The effects of visualization format and spatial ability on learning star motions

The purpose of this study was to investigate not only the effectiveness of dynamic versus static visualizations on learning star motions but also the influence of students' spatial abilities with these two types of visualizations on their learning. We assigned 155 fifth-grade students to either a dynamic or a static condition. We used a science achievement test to measure student learning outcomes by assessing knowledge acquisition. We classified students as having either a low or high spatial ability based on their test scores for primary mental abilities, specifically spatial relations. The results showed that dynamic visualizations were more effective than static visualizations for learning complex concepts involving star motions. Furthermore, learners' spatial abilities had a positive effect on their learning outcomes but did not moderate the effectiveness of dynamic versus static visualizations for learning in this domain. Our findings suggest that when designing instructional materials, the dynamic properties of visualizations should be aligned with the dynamic nature of the subject matter. We conclude that students' spatial abilities are beneficial to learning, especially when they are studying a complex domain that demands spatial changes and moving processes; therefore, our findings support the importance of assessing spatial ability in learning with visualizations.     

Learning with dynamic and static visualizations: Realistic details only benefit learners with high visuospatial abilities

Learning environments can nowadays easily be enriched with different presentation formats of visualizations, because computer graphics technology is constantly and rapidly developing. This study investigates the effectiveness of dynamic compared to static visualizations. Moreover, the influence of realistic details in the visualizations as well as learners’ prerequisites in terms of their visuospatial abilities were addressed. Eighty university students were randomly assigned to four conditions of a two-by-two between subjects design with the two independent variables dynamism and realism. Learning outcomes were measured by means of a verbal factual knowledge test about the terminology and visuospatial details and a pictorial recognition test about the dynamic processes. Data analyses revealed no effects for factual knowledge. With respect to recognition, learners with dynamic visualizations outperformed learners with static visualizations. Furthermore, there was an interaction between learners’ visuospatial abilities and the degree of realism in the visualization: learners with lower visuospatial abilities showed better recognition with schematized visualizations, whereas learners with higher visuospatial abilities showed better recognition with realistic visualizations. The results imply that when designing instructional materials, both the type of knowledge that has to be acquired as well as learners’ prerequisites such as their visuospatial abilities need to be considered.     

Learning about locomotion patterns: Effective use of multiple pictures and motion-indicating arrows

This study investigated how enriching visualizations with arrows indicating the motion of objects may help in conveying dynamic information: Multiple static-simultaneous visualizations with motion-indicating arrows were compared with either multiple visualizations without arrows or a single visualization with arrows. Seventy-one students were randomly assigned to the three conditions. Learning outcomes were measured by dynamic and static pictorial test items requiring learners to classify objects according to their locomotion pattern. Even though learners' performance in the static test indicated some use of static cues, they showed better performance once dynamic information was available suggesting that it is applied to accomplish the task. Unexpectedly, the combined condition performed worse than both other conditions in the dynamic test. Accordingly, multiple visualizations without arrows and single visualizations with motion indicators appear to facilitate mental animation differently either by supporting comparisons among multiple pictures or by making dynamic information explicit. However, combining both instructional methods may result in interference thereby hindering learning.     

Learning about locomotion patterns from visualizations: Effects of presentation format and realism

The rapid development of computer graphics technology has made possible an easy integration of dynamic visualizations into computer-based learning environments. This study examines the relative effectiveness of dynamic visualizations, compared either to sequentially or simultaneously presented static visualizations. Moreover, the degree of realism in the visualizations was manipulated experimentally. One hundred-and-twenty university students were randomly assigned to one of six conditions (3 × 2; between-subjects; presentation format × realism). Learners’ visuo-spatial abilities were considered as a continuous moderator for the presentation format. Learning outcomes were measured by a pictorial locomotion pattern classification test. Dynamic conditions outperformed static-sequential ones, but not static-simultaneous conditions, in classification performance. Realism had no main effect and did not interact with the presentation format as expected. Learners’ visuo-spatial abilities had a positive effect on learning outcomes, but did not moderate the effects of the presentation format. Implications of the results for the design of instructional materials are discussed.     

Modality and cueing in multimedia learning: Examining cognitive and perceptual explanations for the modality effect

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of modality (written text vs. spoken text) and visual cueing (low cueing vs. high cueing) on the learning and mental effort of participants studying a computer-based static diagram at their own pace. Participants were randomly assigned to four versions of the computer-based materials formed into a 2 × 2 factorial design by crossing modality with cueing. The results revealed a reverse modality effect, wherein participants studying written text outperformed those studying spoken text on tests of free recall, matching, comprehension, and spatial recall, but not mental effort. Information cueing did not significantly affect either performance or mental effort. These findings are discussed in the context of two popular explanations of the modality effect: the cognitive resources explanation and the perceptual resources explanation. The results were best explained from a perceptual resources viewpoint.     

Extending multimedia research: How do prerequisite knowledge and reading comprehension affect learning from text and pictures

The present study aimed at extending research on multimedia design principles by investigating their validity as a function of learners’ reading comprehension and scientific literacy. Students (N = 125; age: M = 15.11 years) learned about cell reproduction during their regular Biology lessons in one of six conditions resulting from cross-varying multimedia (text only vs. text plus animations) and text modality (spoken vs. written vs. spoken and written). Recall and transfer were assessed immediately after learning and again 1 week later. Overall, adding animations to text as well as using spoken rather than written text improved only immediate recall; in addition, a multimedia effect for delayed recall was observed for learners with higher levels of scientific literacy. A redundant presentation of text proved harmful especially for delayed performance measures. Reading comprehension did not moderate multimedia design effects. Students with more suitable cognitive prerequisites were better able to maintain performance from the immediate to the delayed tests. Future multimedia research should further investigate the boundary conditions that moderate multimedia effectiveness.     

Learning how to use a computer-based concept-mapping tool: Self-explaining examples helps

In initial skill acquisition in well-structured domains, example-based learning typically leads to better learning outcomes than learning by doing. Cognitive Load Theory explains this result by the worked-example effect: Example-based learning prevents learners from using load-intensive strategies and focuses their attention on the principles to-be-learned. In two experiments, we investigated the use of examples for acquiring a new learning strategy, namely computer-based concept mapping. Experiment 1 compared learners who studied two examples on how to construct a concept map with learners who practiced concept mapping by constructing two concept maps on their own. We did not find significant differences in learning outcomes. Therefore, in Experiment 2, we introduced a third group of learners who studied examples with the additional support of self-explanation prompts. Self-explaining examples led to better learning outcomes than learning with examples without prompts or practicing. With respect to cognitive load, we found that examples without prompts released learners’ working memory compared to practicing, whereas self-explaining examples led to a higher cognitive load compared to examples without self-explanation.     

The impact of disfluency,pacing, and students’ need for cognition on learning with multimedia

In the current study, it was examined how learning with multimedia is affected by disfluency, pacing, and students’ need for cognition. Contrasting hypotheses were derived regarding how reducing the audio quality of spoken text by integrating hissing (disfluent) would affect learning outcomes. According to cognitive load theory, a disfluent audio quality should hamper learning, while according to disfluency theory, a disfluent audio quality should foster learning, especially when learning is self-paced. Moreover, self-paced learning should be particularly beneficial for learners with a high need for cognition (NFC). The hypotheses were tested in a 2 × 2-design, with quality of spoken text (regular vs. disfluent) and pacing (system-paced vs. self-paced) as independent variables and NFC as continuous variable. Supporting cognitive load theory, disfluent text decreased performance in a transfer and pictorial test. There was no significant interaction between spoken text quality and pacing. However, in line with previous research, self-pacing led to longer learning times and increased performance in a retention and in a transfer test. Moreover, results revealed that self-pacing had beneficial effects on understanding particularly for learners with a high NFC. This suggests that whether self-pacing of a multimedia instruction fosters understanding depends on learners’ specific cognitive prerequisites.     

Effects of spatial ability and richness of motion cue on learning in mechanically complex domain

This study seeks to examine the impact of individual differences in the spatial ability of learners to integrate verbal information and three modes of visual representations. Several hypotheses were tested, including that (1) individual difference in spatial ability should influence the learning of theoretical knowledge when the instructional materials present a static visual representation at the lowest motion cue richness, and (2) both animations and the static visual representation containing motion cues should be more effective than static visual representation, especially for learners with low spatial ability. In the experiment, 60 learners were classified as having either low or high spatial ability on the basis of their performance on the Kit of Factor Referenced Cognitive Tests. The learners got knowledge from written explanations describing a four-stroke engine mechanism in a computer-based format. Also, written explanations were reinforced by corresponding visual representations with three levels of motion cue richness (static images, static images with motion cues or animations). Understanding was measured by a problem-solving transfer test. The results indicate that (1) presenting written explanations with corresponding animations did not improve performance of the learners with high spatial ability, (2) for the learners with low spatial ability, learning was enhanced by the use of animations, (3) merely adding motion cues to the static visual representation did not improve learning of the learners with low spatial ability, and (4) use of animations did not help learners with low spatial ability more than those with high spatial ability.     

The modality effect tested in children in a user‐paced multimedia environment

The modality learning effect proposes that learning is enhanced when information is presented in both the visual and the auditory domains (e.g. pictures and spoken information) compared with presenting information solely in the visual channel (e.g. pictures and written text). Most of the evidence for this effect comes from adults in a laboratory setting. Therefore, we tested the modality effect with 80 children in the highest grade of elementary school in a naturalistic setting. In a between‐subjects design, the children either saw representational pictures with speech or representational pictures with text. Retention and transfer knowledge was tested at three moments: immediately after the intervention, one day after and after one week. The present study did not find any evidence for a modality effect in children when the lesson was learner‐paced. Instead, we found a reversed modality effect directly after the intervention for retention. A reversed modality effect was also found for the transfer questions one day later. This effect was robust, even when controlling for individual differences.     

What You See Is What You Code: A “live” algorithm development and visualization environment for novice learners

Pedagogical algorithm visualization (AV) systems produce graphical representations that aim to assist learners in understanding the dynamic behavior of computer algorithms. In order to foster active learning, computer science educators have developed AV systems that empower learners to construct their own visualizations of algorithms under study. Notably, these systems support a similar development model in which coding an algorithm is temporally distinct from viewing and interacting with the resulting visualization. Given that they are known to have problems both with formulating syntactically correct code, and with understanding how code executes, novice learners would appear likely to benefit from a more “live” development model that narrows the gap between coding an algorithm and viewing its visualization. In order to explore this possibility, we have implemented “What You See Is What You Code,” an algorithm development and visualization model geared toward novices first learning to program under the imperative paradigm. In the model, the line of algorithm code currently being edited is reevaluated on every edit, leading to immediate syntactic feedback, along with immediate semantic feedback in the form of an AV. Analysis of usability and field studies involving introductory computer science students suggests that the immediacy of the model's feedback can help novices to quickly identify and correct programming errors, and ultimately to develop semantically correct code.     

The effect of the modality principle to support learning with virtual reality: An eye-tracking and electrodermal activity study

Background

Virtual reality (VR) is considered a promising approach to support learning. An instructional design is essential to optimize cognitive processes. Studies show that VR has unique instructional and pedagogical requirements.

Objectives

To evaluate the effectiveness and applicability of the modality principle, which was previously validated in 2D classic multimedia, for learning with VR. The modality principle states that multimedia information presented as spoken narration is superior to on-screen text.

Methods

A prospective experimental study with two compared conditions of instruction: VR-based learning guided by on-screen text (n = 34) versus spoken narration (n = 28). Students' cognitive learning experiences were captured by eye-tracking and electrodermal activity (EDA). In addition, students' knowledge was evaluated using a pre–post knowledge test.

Results and Conclusions

Overall, there was no significant difference in knowledge retention between the participants who learned with on-screen text compared to spoken narration. However, results from the eye-tracking analysis showed that students who learned with the on-screen text devoted longer visual attention toward important learning activity areas of interest, suggesting a better ability to discern between relevant and irrelevant information. Conversely, students who learned with the spoken narration expressed significantly more EDA peak responses, proposing a higher cognitive load.

Implications

This study outlines that while learning with VR was effective, the modality principle might not apply to learning with VR. Moreover, the analysis of the learning process suggests even an inverse effect, favouring the provision of instructional scaffolds as on-screen text. Future research should evaluate this effect on long-term knowledge retention.     

Adaptive diagrams: Handing control over to the learner to manage split-attention online

Based on cognitive load theory, it is well known that when studying a diagram that includes explanatory text, optimal learning occurs when the text is physically positioned close to the diagram as it eliminates the need for learners to split their attention between the two sources of information. What is not known is the effect on learning when learners manage split-attention for themselves when presented with a separated diagram and explanatory text. This study focuses on this new research direction by examining how learners can self-manage cognitive load through the physical manipulation of digital materials. Physical manipulation refers to moving text objects in digital materials to connect related pieces of textual information to a diagram, thus adapting the diagram to reduce split-attention. Fifty-two university students participated in one of two experiments. Experiment 1 (N = 34) investigated whether learners who were guided to self-manage split-attention by moving text objects on a screen displaying instructional material with evident split-attention were able to reduce split-attention and thus outperform learners who were provided split-source materials. Experiment 2 (N = 18) collected verbal think-aloud protocols to uncover the students' learning processes with the materials. Results confirmed the split-attention effect thus replicating this effect in a digital domain. Furthermore, whilst the self-managed condition did not significantly outperform the split-attention condition, the added task for learners to move text boxes to relevant aspects of the diagram did not have an adverse effect on learning, as the self-managed condition performed as well as (and for a recall task slightly better than) the split-attention condition. The verbal protocols highlighted that in order for learners to successfully self-manage split-attention training and guidance needs to be more extensive and explicit. Implications for further research for this new research direction in cognitive load theory are discussed.     

Trainee teachers’ mental effort in learning spreadsheet through self-instructional module based on Cognitive Load Theory

A printed module should consist of media elements, namely text and pictures, which are self-instructional and could cater to the needs of the user. However, the typical platform of such visualization frequently overloads the limited working memory causing split attention and redundancy effects. The purpose of this study is to design and develop a printed self-instructional module based on Cognitive Load Theory in learning. Media elements are presented with minimal cognitive demands with an action- and task-oriented approach. Utilizing a modified Solomon Group design on 113 trainee teachers selected using purposive sampling, the effectiveness of the developed module was compared to the conventional module. Independent sample t-tests conducted to compare the time of completion in performance between the Control Group working on the conventional module and Group 2 working on the developed module show significant statistical differences in pre- and post-activities. Group 2 reported lower cognitive load scores on the rating scale and graphical plots using computational approach showed higher instructional efficiency. Thus, results show that trainees working on the developed printed module were able to perform faster and better with lower mental effort and had higher performance.     

A social approach for learning agents

In this paper, we propose a social approach for learning agents. In dynamic environments, smart agents should detect changes and adapt themselves, applying dynamic learning strategies and drift detection algorithms. Recent studies note that an ensemble of learners can be coordinated by simple protocols based on votes or weighted votes; however, they are not capable of determining the number of learners or the ensemble composition properly. Conversely, we show in this paper that Social Network Theory can provide the multi-agent learning community with sophisticated and well-founded reputation models that outperform well-known ensemble-based drift detection techniques, generating accurate and small ensembles of learning agents. Our approach is evaluated considering dynamic bilateral negotiation scenarios and benchmark databases, presenting statistically significant results that are better than those of other ensemble-based techniques.     

Stereoscopic 3D's impact on constructing spatial hands-on representations

While learning biological topics constructing depictive representations may be the first step to a deeper understanding. The referred to as visualization type as well as interaction type are supposed to have influence on learning with multimedia applications. Comparing 3D and 2D visualizations (both in combination with written text), there is little evidence whether stereoscopic 3D visualizations better support the understanding of biological topics by constructing adequate depictive representations. Likewise, insufficient indication is given of how the interaction type impacts these results (e.g. the ability/disability to move and rotate the displayed object). Therefore, our study focused on an e-learning environment dealing with the anatomy and physiology of the nasal cavity. Here, either (1) text and 2D visualisations or (2) text and stereoscopic 3D visualisations were used – both in combination with two interaction types (interaction/no interaction). Research subjects were 144 eighth grade students at medium stratification level. During a working phase with the different multimedia applications (visualization type 2D/stereoscopic 3D and interaction type ‘interaction’/‘no interaction’) the students were instructed to form the nasal cavity out of modeling clay. Finally, for both interaction types the 3D cohorts were by far more successful in representing anatomical details. Hence, stereoscopic 3D technology should be implemented in biological e-learning environments.     

Prior knowledge in learning from a non-linear electronic document: Disorientation and coherence of the reading sequences

A study was carried out to investigate the effects of prior knowledge on learning with a non-linear electronic document including an interactive conceptual map. Cognitive Load Theory was used as theoretical framework to investigate effects on cognitive load and disorientation in learning from non-linear documents. Forty-four future high school biology teachers were required to learn the multiplication cycle of a virus from either a hierarchical structure (organisational links) or a network structure (relational links). For the low prior knowledge learners, the results showed that the hierarchical structure supported better free recall performance and reduced feelings of disorientation. In contrast, the high prior knowledge learners performed better and followed more coherent reading sequences in the network structure. However, no interaction effect between prior knowledge and the type of structure was observed on mental effort and disorientation ratings. The results and the construct of disorientation are discussed in light of the processing demands in non-linear documents.