A photoacoustic imager with light illumination through an infrared-transparent silicon CMUT array

A novel hardware design and preliminary experimental results for photoacoustic imaging are reported in this paper. This imaging system makes use of an infrared-transparent capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) chip for ultrasound reception and illuminates the image target through the CMUT array. The cascaded arrangement between the light source and transducer array allows for a more compact imager head and results in more uniform illumination. Taking advantage of the low optical absorption coefficient of silicon in the near infrared spectrum as well as the broad acoustic bandwidth that CMUTs provide, an infrared-transparent CMUT array has been developed for ultrasound reception. The center frequency of the polysilicon-membrane CMUT devices used in this photoacoustic system is 3.5 MHz, with a fractional bandwidth of 118% in reception mode. The silicon substrate of the CMUT array has been thinned to 100 μm and an antireflection dielectric layer is coated on the back side to improve the infrared-transmission rate. Initial results show that the transmission rate of a 1.06-μm Nd:Yag laser through this CMUT chip is 12%. This transmission rate can be improved if the thickness of silicon substrate and the thin-film dielectrics in the CMUT structure are properly tailored. Imaging of a metal wire phantom using this cascaded photoacoustic imager is demonstrated.     

An integrated circuit with transmit beamforming flip-chip bonded to a 2-D CMUT array for 3-D ultrasound imaging

State-of-the-art 3-D medical ultrasound imaging requires transmitting and receiving ultrasound using a 2-D array of ultrasound transducers with hundreds or thousands of elements. A tight combination of the transducer array with integrated circuitry eliminates bulky cables connecting the elements of the transducer array to a separate system of electronics. Furthermore, preamplifiers located close to the array can lead to improved receive sensitivity. A combined IC and transducer array can lead to a portable, high-performance, and inexpensive 3-D ultrasound imaging system. This paper presents an IC flip-chip bonded to a 16 x 16-element capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) array for 3-D ultrasound imaging. The IC includes a transmit beamformer that generates 25-V unipolar pulses with programmable focusing delays to 224 of the 256 transducer elements. One-shot circuits allow adjustment of the pulse widths for different ultrasound transducer center frequencies. For receiving reflected ultrasound signals, the IC uses the 32-elements along the array diagonals. The IC provides each receiving element with a low-noise 25-MHz-bandwidth transimpedance amplifier. Using a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) clocked at 100 MHz to operate the IC, the IC generated properly timed transmit pulses with 5-ns accuracy. With the IC flip-chip bonded to a CMUT array, we show that the IC can produce steered and focused ultrasound beams. We present 2-D and 3-D images of a wire phantom and 2-D orthogonal cross-sectional images (Bscans) of a latex heart phantom.     

Polymer microring resonators for high-sensitivity and wideband photoacoustic imaging

Polymer microring resonators have been exploited for high-sensitivity and wideband photoacoustic imaging. To demonstrate high-sensitivity ultrasound detection, highfrequency photoacoustic imaging of a 49-μm-diameter black bead at an imaging depth of 5 mm was imaged photoacoustically using a synthetic 2-D array with 249 elements and a low laser fluence of 0.35 mJ/cm². A bandpass filter with a center frequency of 28 MHz and a bandwidth of 16 MHz was applied to all element data but without signal averaging, and a signalto- noise ratio of 16.4 dB was obtained. A wideband detector response is essential for imaging reconstruction of multiscale objects, e.g., various sizes of tissues, by using a range of characteristic acoustic wavelengths. A simulation of photoacoustic tomography of beads shows that objects with their boundaries characteristic of high spatial frequencies and the inner structure primarily of low spatial frequency components can be faithfully reconstructed using such a detector. Photoacoustic tomography experiments of 49- and 301-μm-diameter beads were presented. A high resolution of 12.5 μm was obtained. The boundary of a 301-μm bead was imaged clearly. The results demonstrated that the high sensitivity and broadband response of polymer microring resonators have potential for high resolution and high-fidelity photoacoustic imaging.     

Volumetric ultrasound imaging using 2-D CMUT arrays

Recently, capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) have emerged as a candidate to overcome the difficulties in the realization of 2-D arrays for real-time 3-D imaging. In this paper, we present the first volumetric images obtained using a 2-D CMUT array. We have fabricated a 128 x 128-element 2-D CMUT array with through-wafer via interconnects and a 420-microm element pitch. As an experimental prototype, a 32 x 64-element portion of the 128 x 128-element array was diced and flip-chip bonded onto a glass fanout chip. This chip provides individual leads from a central 16 x 16-element portion of the array to surrounding bondpads. An 8 x 16-element portion of the array was used in the experiments along with a 128-channel data acquisition system. For imaging phantoms, we used a 2.37-mm diameter steel sphere located 10 mm from the array center and two 12-mm-thick Plexiglas plates located 20 mm and 60 mm from the array. A 4 x 4 group of elements in the middle of the 8 x 16-element array was used in transmit, and the remaining elements were used to receive the echo signals. The echo signal obtained from the spherical target presented a frequency spectrum centered at 4.37 MHz with a 100% fractional bandwidth, whereas the frequency spectrum for the echo signal from the parallel plate phantom was centered at 3.44 MHz with a 91% fractional bandwidth. The images were reconstructed by using RF beamforming and synthetic phased array approaches and visualized by surface rendering and multiplanar slicing techniques. The image of the spherical target has been used to approximate the point spread function of the system and is compared with theoretical expectations. This study experimentally demonstrates that 2-D CMUT arrays can be fabricated with high yield using silicon IC-fabrication processes, individual electrical connections can be provided using through-wafer vias, and flip-chip bonding can be used to integrate these dense 2-D arrays with electronic circuits for practical 3-D imaging applications.     

Capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers: next-generation arrays for acoustic imaging?

Piezoelectric materials have dominated the ultrasonic transducer technology. Recently, capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) have emerged as an alternative technology offering advantages such as wide bandwidth, ease of fabricating large arrays, and potential for integration with electronics. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the viability of CMUTs for ultrasound imaging. We present the first pulse-echo phased array B-scan sector images using a 128-element, one-dimensional (1-D) linear CMUT array. We fabricated 64- and 128-element 1-D CMUT arrays with 100% yield and uniform element response across the arrays. These arrays have been operated in immersion with no failure or degradation in performance over the time. For imaging experiments, we built a resolution test phantom roughly mimicking the attenuation properties of soft tissue. We used a PC-based experimental system, including custom-designed electronic circuits to acquire the complete set of 128 x 128 RF A-scans from all transmit-receive element combinations. We obtained the pulse-echo frequency response by analyzing the echo signals from wire targets. These echo signals presented an 80% fractional bandwidth around 3 MHz, including the effect of attenuation in the propagating medium. We reconstructed the B-scan images with a sector angle of 90 degrees and an image depth of 210 mm through offline processing by using RF beamforming and synthetic phased array approaches. The measured 6-dB lateral and axial resolutions at 135 mm depth were 0.0144 radians and 0.3 mm, respectively. The electronic noise floor of the image was more than 50 dB below the maximum mainlobe magnitude. We also performed preliminary investigations on the effects of crosstalk among array elements on the image quality. In the near field, some artifacts were observable extending out from the array to a depth of 2 cm. A tail also was observed in the point spread function (PSF) in the axial direction, indicating the existence of crosstalk. The relative amplitude of this tail with respect to the mainlobe was less than -20 dB.     

Forward-viewing CMUT arrays for medical imaging

This paper reports the design and testing of forward-viewing annular arrays fabricated using capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) technology. Recent research studies have shown that CMUTs have broad frequency bandwidth and high-transduction efficiency. One- and two-dimensional CMUT arrays of various sizes already have been fabricated, and their viability for medical imaging applications has been demonstrated. We fabricated 64-element, forward-viewing annular arrays using the standard CMUT fabrication process and carried out experiments to measure the operating frequency, bandwidth, and transmit/receive efficiency of the array elements. The annular array elements, designed for imaging applications in the 20 MHz range, had a resonance frequency of 13.5 MHz in air. The immersion pulse-echo data collected from a plane reflector showed that the devices operate in the 5-26 MHz range with a fractional bandwidth of 135%. The output pressure at the surface of the transducer was measured to be 24 kPa/V. These values translate into a dynamic range of 131.5 dB for 1-V excitation in 1-Hz bandwidth with a commercial low noise receiving circuitry. The designed, forward-viewing annular CMUT array is suitable for mounting on the front surface of a cylindrical catheter probe and can provide Doppler information for measurement of blood flow and guiding information for navigation through blood vessels in intravascular ultrasound imaging.     

Two-dimensional ultrasound receive array using an angle-tuned Fabry-Perot polymer film sensor for transducer field characterization and transmission ultrasound imaging

A 2-D optical ultrasound receive array has been investigated. The transduction mechanism is based upon the detection of acoustically induced changes in the optical thickness of a thin polymer film acting as a Fabry-Perot sensing interferometer (FPI). By illuminating the sensor with a large-area laser beam and mechanically scanning a photodiode across the reflected output beam, while using a novel angle-tuned phase bias control system to optimally set the FPI working point, a notional 2-D ultrasound array was synthesized. To demonstrate the concept, 1-D and 2-D ultrasound field distributions produced by planar 3.5-MHz and focused 5-MHz PZT ultrasound transducers were mapped. The system was also evaluated by performing transmission ultrasound imaging of a spatially calibrated target. The "array" aperture, defined by the dimensions of the incident optical field, was elliptical, of dimensions 16 x 12 mm and spatially sampled in steps of 0.1 mm or 0.2 mm. Element sizes, defined by the photodiode aperture, of 0.8, 0.4, and 0.2 mm were variously used for these experiments. Two types of sensor were evaluated. One was a discrete 75-microm-thick polyethylene terephthalate FPI bonded to a polymer backing stub which had a wideband peak noise-equivalent pressure of 6.5 kPa and an acoustic bandwidth 12 MHz. The other was a 40-microm Parylene film FPI which was directly vacuum-deposited onto a glass backing stub and had an NEP of 8 kPa and an acoustic bandwidth of 17.5 MHz. It is considered that this approach offers an alternative to piezoelectric ultrasound arrays for transducer field characterization, transmission medical and industrial ultrasound imaging, biomedical photoacoustic imaging, and ultrasonic nondestructive testing.     

Integration of 2D CMUT arrays with front-end electronics for volumetric ultrasound imaging

For three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound imaging, connecting elements of a two-dimensional (2D) transducer array to the imaging system's front-end electronics is a challenge because of the large number of array elements and the small element size. To compactly connect the transducer array with electronics, we flip-chip bond a 2D 16 x 16-element capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) array to a custom-designed integrated circuit (IC). Through-wafer interconnects are used to connect the CMUT elements on the top side of the array with flip-chip bond pads on the back side. The IC provides a 25-V pulser and a transimpedance preamplifier to each element of the array. For each of three characterized devices, the element yield is excellent (99 to 100% of the elements are functional). Center frequencies range from 2.6 MHz to 5.1 MHz. For pulse echo operation, the average - 6-dB fractional bandwidth is as high as 125%. Transmit pressures normalized to the face of the transducer are as high as 339 kPa and input-referred receiver noise is typically 1.2 to 2.1 mPa/pHz. The flip-chip bonded devices were used to acquire 3D synthetic aperture images of a wire-target phantom. Combining the transducer array and IC, as shown in this paper, allows for better utilization of large arrays, improves receive sensitivity, and may lead to new imaging techniques that depend on transducer arrays that are closely coupled to IC electronics.     

Acoustic coupling in capacitive microfabricated ultrasonic transducers: modeling and experiments

In the design of low-frequency transducer arrays for active sonar systems, the acoustic interactions that occur between the transducer elements have received much attention. Because of these interactions, the acoustic loading on each transducer depends on its position in the array, and the radiated acoustic power may vary considerably from one element to another. Capacitive microfabricated ultrasonic transducers (CMUT) are made of a two-dimensional array of metallized micromembranes, all electrically connected in parallel, and driven into flexural motion by the electrostatic force produced by an applied voltage. The mechanical impedance of these membranes is typically much lower than the acoustic impedance of water. In our investigations of acoustic coupling in CMUTs, interaction effects between the membranes in immersion were observed, similar to those reported in sonar arrays. Because CMUTs have many promising applications in the field of medical ultrasound imaging, understanding of cross-coupling mechanisms and acoustic interaction effects is especially important for reducing cross-talk between array elements, which can produce artifacts and degrade image quality. In this paper, we report a finite-element study of acoustic interactions in CMUTs and experimental results obtained by laser interferometry measurements. The good agreement found between finite element modeling (FEM) results and optical displacement measurements demonstrates that acoustic interactions through the liquid represent a major source of cross coupling in CMUTs.     

Design of a front-end integrated circuit for 3D acoustic imaging using 2D CMUT arrays

Integration of front-end electronics with 2D capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) arrays has been a challenging issue due to the small element size and large channel count. We present design and verification of a front-end drive-readout integrated circuit for 3D ultrasonic imaging using 2D CMUT arrays. The circuit cell dedicated to a single CMUT array element consists of a high-voltage pulser and a low-noise readout amplifier. To analyze the circuit cell together with the CMUT element, we developed an electrical CMUT model with parameters derived through finite element analysis, and performed both the pre- and postlayout verification. An experimental chip consisting of 4 X 4 array of the designed circuit cells, each cell occupying a 200 X 200 microm2 area, was formed for the initial test studies and scheduled for fabrication in 0.8 microm, 50 V CMOS technology. The designed circuit is suitable for integration with CMUT arrays through flip-chip bonding and the CMUT-on-CMOS process.     

Quantitative 3-d diagnostic ultrasound imaging using a modified transducer array and an automated image tracking technique

An approach for acquiring dimensionally accurate three-dimensional (3-D) ultrasound data from multiple 2-D image planes is presented. This is based on the use of a modified linear-phased array comprising a central imaging array that acquires multiple, essentially parallel, 2-D slices as the transducer is translated over the tissue of interest. Small, perpendicularly oriented, tracking arrays are integrally mounted on each end of the imaging transducer. As the transducer is translated in an elevational direction with respect to the central imaging array, the images obtained by the tracking arrays remain largely coplanar. The motion between successive tracking images is determined using a minimum sum of absolute difference (MSAD) image matching technique with subpixel matching resolution. An initial phantom scanning-based test of a prototype 8 MHz array indicates that linear dimensional accuracy of 4.6% (2 /spl sigma/) is achievable. This result compares favorably with those obtained using an assumed average velocity [31.5% (2 /spl sigma/) accuracy] and using an approach based on measuring image-to-image decorrelation [8.4% (2 /spl sigma/) accuracy]. The prototype array and imaging system were also tested in a clinical environment, and early results suggest that the approach has the potential to enable a low cost, rapid, screening method for detecting carotid artery stenosis. The average time for performing a screening test for carotid stenosis was reduced from an average of 45 minutes using 2-D duplex Doppler to 12 minutes using the new 3-D scanning approach.     

Annular-ring CMUT arrays for forward-looking IVUS: transducer characterization and imaging

In this study, a 64-element, 1.15-mm diameter annular-ring capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) array was characterized and used for forward-looking intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) imaging tests. The array was manufactured using low-temperature processes suitable for CMOS electronics integration on a single chip. The measured radiation pattern of a 43 X 140-microm2 array element depicts a 40 degrees view angle for forward-looking imaging around a 15-MHz center frequency in agreement with theoretical models. Pulse-echo measurements show a -10-dB fractional bandwidth of 104% around 17 MHz for wire targets 2.5 mm away from the array in vegetable oil. For imaging and SNR measurements, RF A-scan data sets from various targets were collected using an interconnect scheme forming a 32-element array configuration. An experimental point spread function was obtained and compared with simulated and theoretical array responses, showing good agreement. Therefore, this study demonstrates that annular-ring CMUT arrays fabricated with CMOS-compatible processes are capable of forward-looking IVUS imaging, and the developed modeling tools can be used to design improved IVUS imaging arrays.     

3-D ultrasound imaging using a forward-looking CMUT ring array for intravascular/intracardiac applications

Forward-viewing ring arrays can enable new applications in intravascular and intracardiac ultrasound. This work presents compelling, full-synthetic, phased-array volumetric images from a forward-viewing capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) ring array wire bonded to a custom integrated circuit front end. The CMUT ring array has a diameter of 2 mm and 64 elements each 100 microm x 100 microm in size. In conventional mode, echo signals received from a plane reflector at 5 mm had 70% fractional bandwidth around a center frequency of 8.3 MHz. In collapse mode, 69% fractional bandwidth is measured around 19 MHz. Measured signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the echo averaged 16 times was 29 dB for conventional operation and 35 dB for collapse mode. B-scans were generated of a target consisting of steel wires 0.3 mm in diameter to determine resolution performance. The 6 dB axial and lateral resolutions for the B-scan of the wire target are 189 microm and 0.112 radians for 8 MHz, and 78 microm and 0.051 radians for 19 MHz. A reduced firing set suitable for real-time, intravascular applications was generated and shown to produce acceptable images. Rendered three-dimensional (3-D) images of a Palmaz-Schatz stent also are shown, demonstrating that the imaging quality is sufficient for practical applications.     

Front-end receiver electronics for high-frequency monolithic CMUT-on-CMOS imaging arrays

This paper describes the design of CMOS receiver electronics for monolithic integration with capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) arrays for highfrequency intravascular ultrasound imaging. A custom 8-inch (20-cm) wafer is fabricated in a 0.35-μm two-poly, four-metal CMOS process and then CMUT arrays are built on top of the application specific integrated circuits (ASICs) on the wafer. We discuss advantages of the single-chip CMUT-on-CMOS approach in terms of receive sensitivity and SNR. Low-noise and high-gain design of a transimpedance amplifier (TIA) optimized for a forward-looking volumetric-imaging CMUT array element is discussed as a challenging design example. Amplifier gain, bandwidth, dynamic range, and power consumption trade-offs are discussed in detail. With minimized parasitics provided by the CMUT-on-CMOS approach, the optimized TIA design achieves a 90 fA/√Hz input-referred current noise, which is less than the thermal-mechanical noise of the CMUT element. We show successful system operation with a pulseecho measurement. Transducer-noise-dominated detection in immersion is also demonstrated through output noise spectrum measurement of the integrated system at different CMUT bias voltages. A noise figure of 1.8 dB is obtained in the designed CMUT bandwidth of 10 to 20 MHz.     

Reducing inter-element acoustic crosstalk in capacitive micromachined ultrasound transducers

The inter-element acoustic crosstalk problem in capacitive micromachined ultrasound transducer (CMUT) arrays is discussed in this paper. A transfer function matrix approach was used to derive modified transmit waveforms on adjacent elements to reduce the apparent acoustic crosstalk. The significance of this is that this technique relies on programmable waveforms, so that it yields a reduced crosstalk effect with no additional fabrication complexity if the requisite programmable waveform transmit circuits are available. The crosstalk reduction achieved by this method also was examined in combination with conventional (physical separation-based) crosstalk reduction approaches. A CMUT transducer array structure was simulated in a two-dimensional (2-D) model using finite element analysis (FEA), and the crosstalk reduction method was tested for both small and large alternating current (AC) (ultrasonic) excitation conditions. A 25 dB crosstalk reduction was achieved for small AC excitation conditions in which approximately linear operation is encountered. When the AC excitation amplitude was large compared to the direct current (DC) bias, an "iterative harmonic cancellation" approach (also based on programmable waveform techniques) could be applied in combination with the crosstalk reduction method to minimize the inherently transmitted harmonics, and a similar crosstalk reduction effect of 25.5 dB was achieved. This method also can be combined with other structure-modification based crosstalk reduction approaches.     

Design of a MEMS discretized hyperbolic paraboloid geometry ultrasonic sensor microarray

Design of a discretized hyperbolic paraboloid geometry beamforming array of capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUT) has been presented. The array can intrinsically provide a broadband constant beamwidth beamforming capability without any microelectronic signal processing. A mathematical model has been developed and verified to characterize the array response. A design methodology has been presented that enables determination of the array's physical dimensions and CMUT modeling in a straightforward manner. Developed methodology has been used to design two discretized hyperbolic paraboloid geometry beamforming CMUT arrays: one in the 2.3 MHz to 5.2 MHz frequency range and another in the 113 kHz to 167 kHz frequency range. CMUTs have been designed using a cross-verification method that involves lumped element modeling, 3-D electromechanical finite element analysis (FEA), and microfabrication simulation. The developed array has the potential to be used in real-time automotive collision-avoidance applications, medical diagnostic imaging and therapeutic applications, and industrial sensing.     

Backward-mode multiwavelength photoacoustic scanner using a planar Fabry-Perot polymer film ultrasound sensor for high-resolution three-dimensional imaging of biological tissues

A multiwavelength backward-mode planar photoacoustic scanner for 3D imaging of soft tissues to depths of several millimeters with a spatial resolution in the tens to hundreds of micrometers range is described. The system comprises a tunable optical parametric oscillator laser system that provides nanosecond laser pulses between 600 and 1200 nm for generating the photoacoustic signals and an optical ultrasound mapping system based upon a Fabry-Perot polymer film sensor for detecting them. The system enables photoacoustic signals to be mapped in 2D over a 50 mm diameter aperture in steps of 10 microm with an optically defined element size of 64 microm. Two sensors were used, one with a 22 microm thick polymer film spacer and the other with a 38 mum thick spacer providing -3 dB acoustic bandwidths of 39 and 22 MHz, respectively. The measured noise equivalent pressure of the 38 microm sensor was 0.21 kPa over a 20 MHz measurement bandwidth. The instrument line-spread function (LSF) was measured as a function of position and the minimum lateral and vertical LSFs found to be 38 and 15 microm, respectively. To demonstrate the ability of the system to provide high-resolution 3D images, a range of absorbing objects were imaged. Among these was a blood vessel phantom that comprised a network of blood filled tubes of diameters ranging from 62 to 300 microm immersed in an optically scattering liquid. In addition, to demonstrate the applicability of the system to spectroscopic imaging, a phantom comprising tubes filled with dyes of different spectral characteristics was imaged at a range of wavelengths. It is considered that this type of instrument may provide a practicable alternative to piezoelectric-based photoacoustic systems for high-resolution structural and functional imaging of the skin microvasculature and other superficial structures.     

A 32 x 32 capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer array manufactured in standard CMOS

As ultrasound imagers become increasingly portable and lower cost, breakthroughs in transducer technology will be needed to provide high-resolution, real-time 3-D imaging while maintaining the affordability needed for portable systems. This paper presents a 32 x 32 ultrasound array prototype, manufactured using a CMUT-in-CMOS approach whereby ultrasonic transducer elements and readout circuits are integrated on a single chip using a standard integrated circuit manufacturing process in a commercial CMOS foundry. Only blanket wet-etch and sealing steps are added to complete the MEMS devices after the CMOS process. This process typically yields better than 99% working elements per array, with less than ±1.5 dB variation in receive sensitivity among the 1024 individually addressable elements. The CMUT pulseecho frequency response is typically centered at 2.1 MHz with a -6 dB fractional bandwidth of 60%, and elements are arranged on a 250 μm hexagonal grid (less than half-wavelength pitch). Multiplexers and CMOS buffers within the array are used to make on-chip routing manageable, reduce the number of physical output leads, and drive the transducer cable. The array has been interfaced to a commercial imager as well as a set of custom transmit and receive electronics, and volumetric images of nylon fishing line targets have been produced.