The role of working memory on graphical information processing

This research extends previous graphics research by examining how individual differences in working memory (WM) capacity and changes in graphic design influence graphical information processing. An experiment compared decision accuracy of two graphic decision aids and an unaided group for a task at two levels of complexity. There were no accuracy differences for the low complexity task. At high levels of task complexity, accuracy depended upon WM capacity and how the graphic aid influenced perception. Eye movement data show information processing differences also are contingent upon graphic design features and WM capacity. We postulate that graphs reduce cognitive overhead by shifting some of the cognitive burden to our visual perception system. More efficient graphical perceptual will improve decision performance only if our cognitive resources are capacity constrained and those cognitive resources are used elsewhere in the problem solving process.     

An analogue and propositional hybrid model for the perception of computer generated graphical images

This research investigated two alternative models, analogue and propositional, which describe how three-dimensional (3-D) graphical images are represented and stored in human memory. In order to differentiate between the two models, three separate experiments were performed using a variation of the Shepard-Metzler mental rotation paradigm (Shepard and Metzler 1971). For each experiment, the effects of three independent variables on the performance of a 'mental rotation' task were examined: (a) three levels of figure complexity, ( b) three axes of rotation and (c) four angles of rotation. The subjects' task was to compare specific angle, axis or depth versus picture plane rotations for pairs (rotated and non-rotated versions) of 3-D graphic figures displayed on a CRT. The results indicated that response times varied depending on level of figure complexity, axis or angle of rotation. A new hybrid model integrating components of both the analogue and propositional positions is proposed to explain the reaction time data. In this model, analogue processes occur when processing requirements for cognitive tasks are low, whereas propositional processes occur when processing requirements are high. Implications of the results for the internal representation of 3-D images in human memory and for the design of graphic work stations are discussed.     

An analogue and propositional hybrid model for the perception of computer generated graphical images

Abstract

This research investigated two alternative models, analogue and propositional, which describe how three-dimensional (3-D) graphical images are represented and stored in human memory. In order to differentiate between the two models, three separate experiments were performed using a variation of the Shepard-Metzler mental rotation paradigm (Shepard and Metzler 1971). For each experiment, the effects of three independent variables on the performance of a ‘mental rotation’ task were examined: (a) three levels of figure complexity, ( b) three axes of rotation and (c) four angles of rotation. The subjects' task was to compare specific angle, axis or depth versus picture plane rotations for pairs (rotated and non-rotated versions) of 3-D graphic figures displayed on a CRT. The results indicated that response times varied depending on level of figure complexity, axis or angle of rotation. A new hybrid model integrating components of both the analogue and propositional positions is proposed to explain the reaction time data. In this model, analogue processes occur when processing requirements for cognitive tasks are low, whereas propositional processes occur when processing requirements are high. Implications of the results for the internal representation of 3-D images in human memory and for the design of graphic work stations are discussed.     

A Human-Cognitive Perspective of Users’ Password Choices in Recognition-Based Graphical Authentication

ABSTRACT

Graphical password composition is an important part of graphical user authentication which affects the strength of the chosen password. Considering that graphical authentication is associated with visual search, perception, and information retrieval, in this paper we report on an eye-tracking study (N = 109) that aimed to investigate the effects of users’ cognitive styles toward the strength of the created passwords and shed light into whether and how the visual strategy of the users during graphical password composition is associated with the passwords’ strength. For doing so, we adopted Witkin’s Field Dependence-Independence theory, which underpins individual differences in visual information and cognitive processing, as graphical password composition tasks are associated with visual search. The analysis revealed that users with different cognitive processing characteristics followed different patterns of visual behavior during password composition which affected the strength of the created passwords. The findings underpin the need of considering human-cognitive characteristics as a design factor in graphical password schemes. The paper concludes by discussing implications for improving recognition-based graphical passwords through adaptation and personalization techniques based on individual cognitive characteristics.     

A Cognitive Model for Understanding Graphical Perception

This article describes a computer program, UCIE (Understanding Cognitive Information Engineering) that simulates graphical perception. UCIE predicts response time to answer a question posed to a graphic display from assumptions about the sequence of eye fixations, short-term memory capacity and duration limits, and the degree of difficulty to acquire information in each glance. An empirical study compared actual performance to UCIE predictions over a range of display types and question types. The results yielded some support for the cognitive model. A zero-parameter model explains 37% of the variance in average reaction times (N = 1,128). However, the zero-parameter model only explains about 10% of the individual variation in reaction times across 28 subjects (N = 15,200). Although this is an important start to understand how we interpret visual displays for meaning, additional research is needed to explain individual differences in performance.     

Alphanumeric and graphic displays for dynamic process monitoring and control

The use of high resolution graphic display technology provides the control system designer with numerous options for displaying process plant information. This research evaluated the effectiveness of alphanumeric and graphic display formats for presenting system information in a dynamic process plant environment Thirty subjects, divided equally into three groups, were tested on three separate display formats: graphical, digital and multiple representations. The operators' task was to optimize the performance of a simulated fluid processing plant and to detect system failures. Results showed that the multiple display resulted in the best optimization performance and minimized the time required to detect failures. In general, the graphic display produced the worst performance with the digital display exhibiting intermediate results. The decision strategies used by the operators were found to have the greatest impact on performance. The results are discussed in terms of the merits of different display formats for representing system information in a manner appropriate to the operator's task.     

Confidence and accuracy in judgements using computer displayed information

Confidence and accuracy in decision making are often unrelated, contrary to popular belief. In practice, confidence is often relied upon as evidence of good decision making, since the quality of a decision is difficult to determine at the time the decision is made. Information systems are increasingly used to assist decision making in organizations. Researchers believe that task, information system, and human characteristics affect the relationship between accuracy and confidence. In this research, manipulation of task, system, or human characteristics that led to an increase in confidence in decision making did not lead to an increase in decision accuracy and vice versa. In this study decision accuracy was judged by a decision process measure instead of a decision outcome measure. It was observed that subjects who had higher numerical skills than spatial skills expressed significantly more confidence in their decisions in a problem solving task; however, decision accuracy scores were not significantly better for subjects with higher numerical skills. Thus, these subjects expressed overconfidence in their decisions. Subjects using graphical displays (instead of tabular displays) also expressed similar overconfidence in their decisions. On the other hand, when subjects were given a less complex task, their decision accuracy scores were significantly better than subjects who had a more complex task. No significant difference was found in confidence expressed in their decisions, and therefore subjects performing a less complex task expressed underconfidence in their decisions. These results and others in the paper suggest that confidence is a poor surrogate for accuracy in decision making. Sophisticated software interfaces, like graphical information displays, could lead to increased confidence in decision making without significant improvement in the quality of decisions made.     

Human processing of two‐dimensional graphics: Information‐volume concepts and effects in graph‐task fit anchoring frameworks

This report discusses the findings from three related experiments on the effects of information volume in graph‐task fit anchoring frameworks reported in the literature. Information volume is operationally defined as the size of a data matrix (SDM), that is, the total number of points in a graphical display. The anchoring frameworks specify that an extraction task has high or low x‐value anchoring depending on whether or not the x‐component is represented in the question (as a given or unknown value). A total within‐subject repeated measure experimental design was used to test the effects of SDM on speed and accuracy of data extraction. These experiments also integrated different frameworks to relate the information‐volume effects. Results indicated that increased SDM adversely affected only data extraction time, not accuracy. A significant graph format by information volume interaction was observed; and training did reduce perceived information complexity, especially for high data volume displays. Also, effects of information volume on graph types differed: For vertical bars, a steeply rising monotonic performance‐information volume trend was observed for all tasks. Symbols produced flat nonmonotonic trends for high x‐value anchoring tasks and a gently rising monotonie trend for low x‐value anchoring tasks. In contrast, line graphs produced a gently rising monotonie trend for high x‐value anchoring tasks and a nonmonotonic trend for low x‐value anchoring tasks. Such evidence suggests that information volume effects on human processing of two‐dimensional graphical displays are influenced considerably by the character of the graphic format used for representing quantitative data and by the “fit” in anchoring characteristics between tasks and graphical formats.     

Human information processing during physical exercise.

This study was designed to investigate how conditions of physical exercise affect human information processing. Sixteen subjects performed two information processing tasks (perception and decision) during two exercise conditions (endurance vs interval protocols) and during two control conditions (rest vs minimal load protocols). The control conditions required subjects either to perform the information processing tasks under resting conditions or while pedalling a bicycle ergometer at a minimal workload. Workload during the exercise protocols consisted of a fixed percentage of the subject's maximal workload. Each 40 min protocol consisted of five consecutive stages: practice, baseline, warming-up, exercise, and cooling-down, during which heart rate and ratings of perceived exertion were determined. In the perception task subjects had to identify a briefly presented row of three letters. In the decision task subjects had to indicate which of the outer numbers in a row of three digits was the larger. Results indicated that the two control protocols did not influence cognitive task performance; however, in the exercise protocols, increments in physical workload improved performance on the decision task and reduced performance on the perception task, while decrements in physical workload reduced performance on the decision task and improved performance on the perception task. Changes in mental task performance were not evident within protocol stages; only after stage transitions did changes in mental performance occur. We discussed possible theoretical approaches to explain these results and concluded that models advanced in the context of dual-task methodology seem most promising.     

Modelling of menu design in computerized work

The objective of the research was to propose and validate a theoretically meaningful link between three constructs of hierarchical menu design: menu dimension, task complexity, and user knowledge structure. Twenty-four subjects participated in a nested factorial experiment. The subjects performed a menu retrieval task using a hierarchical menu system constructed for use in the domain of utility boiler control. The dependent variables were time to respond and accuracy. The independent variables were menu dimension, task complexity and user knowledge structure. Four hypotheses were tested. The foundation of the hypotheses was based upon the premise that when task complexity is low, the short-term memory requirements of the menu retrieval task are low. Thus, the user's knowledge structure will not affect performance because it is not required for the chunking of visual information. The objectives of this research were met and are presented in the context of an information processing model for psychomotor tasks.     

The Influence of Color and Graphical Information Presentation in a Managerial Decision Simulation

A laboratory experiment was conducted to assess the influence of graphical and color-enhanced information presentation on information use and decision quality in a simulation setting. This is the third in a series of studies examining the effects of colors and graphics in a managerial decision-making task. The findings reported in this article indicate that graphical presentations are more useful when evaluating information in order to determine promising directions in the search for an optimal solution, but when the task requires the determination of exact data values for computational purposes, graphical reports are less useful than tabular ones. Benefits of color include taking fewer iterations to complete the task. However, these benefits are associated more strongly with the graphical report as indicated by the significantly higher use of color-enhanced graphical reports over monochromatic ones. The benefits of color are also restricted to the early stages in the decision task, with color graphic report usage dropping sharply over time.     

A complexity measure of task content in information‐input tasks

This article presents a measure of the task complexity a human operator faces while inputting information. The measure, called task‐content complexity (TCC), depends only on the complexity of the task content. A human‐computer information‐transmission model is proposed to clarify task complexity. It is shown that the model has three hierarchical levels of task complexities: the computer device (hardware), the computer software, and the task content. The model provides a definition of task content and the concept of the TCC measure. It is theoretically proven that the TCC measure is related to the task content, and is independent of the computer system used. Experiments based on graphical information‐input tasks confirm that the TCC measures of the same task using two different computer systems are almost equal. They also confirm the strong relationship between the TCC measure and the cognitive complexity of the task the operator performs. The TCC measure will be very useful in the design of computer tasks and in the evaluation and the usability rating of computer systems.     

Examining System Administrators’ Verification Information to Enhance IT Training Design

System administrators are faced with a broad range of responsibilities for highly complex environments. They need the ability to verify the work they have done. That verification comes from accurate and available information that we refer to as information credibility. This exploratory research aims to address the relationship between task complexity, task risk, and verification information seeking in graphical user interface (GUI) tools used by system administrators. This research also illustrates the use of verification information as a starting point for a content-centered training design. Potential antecedents of verification information are identified and a model is proposed that addresses how aspects of the task and environment affect the need for verification. Findings suggest that task complexity is a significant indicator of the need for verification information. In addition, findings also suggest that this verification information provides a logical foundation for improving knowledge acquisition of the system administration team.     

A novel method to monitoring changes in cognitive load in video‐based learning

One of the golden rules in instructional design methods is to optimize the use of working memory capacity and avoid cognitive overload. The study of cognitive load has historically relied on one's introspection. However, it is difficult to capture changes in cognitive load levels during learning sensitively. This paper suggests an approach to investigating dynamic changes in cognitive load by using a pupillometry. With the method, this study explores the effects of learners' prior knowledge and task complexity on cognitive load. An experiment was conducted on two groups of students (N = 19) with distinct levels of prior knowledge. In the experimental session, participants watched a video lecture on a mathematics proposition, while being eye‐tracked. The lecture consists of sections, which can be either a high task complexity or a low task complexity based on elements they have. Pupil dilations acquired in each section were used to explore the time course of cognitive load. To formulate cognitive load patterns, a time‐series clustering was used. The research conducted a chi‐square analysis to test differences in cognitive load patterns by prior knowledge and task complexity. Results show that pupil dilation patterns can be applied to monitor changes in cognitive load during learning.     

混合增强视觉认知架构及其关键技术进展

智能视觉系统虽然在大规模信息的特征检测、提取与匹配等处理上具备一定优势，但是在深层次认知上仍存在不确定性和脆弱性，尤其是针对视觉感知基础上的视觉认知任务，相关数理逻辑和图像处理方法并未实现质的突破，智能算法难以取代人类执行较为复杂的理解、推理、决策和学习等操作。为助力智能视觉感知和认知技术的进一步发展，本文总结了混合增强智能在视觉认知领域的应用现状，给出了混合增强视觉认知的基本架构，并对可纳入该架构下的应用领域及关键技术进行了综述。首先，在分析智能视觉感知内涵和基本范畴的基础上，融合人的视觉感知与心理认知，探讨混合增强视觉认知的定义、范畴及其深化过程，对不同的视觉信息处理阶段进行对比，进而在分析相关认知模型发展现状的基础上，构建混合增强视觉认知的基本框架。该架构不仅可依靠智能算法进行快速地检测、识别、理解等处理，最大限度地挖掘"机"的计算潜能，而且可凭借适时、适当的人工推理、预测和决策有效增强系统认知的准确性和可靠性，最大程度地发挥人的认知优势。其次，分别从混合增强的视觉监测、视觉驾驶、视觉决策以及视觉共享等4个领域探讨可纳入该架构的代表性应用及存在的问题，指出混合增强视觉认知架构是现有技术条件下能够更好地发挥计算机效能、减轻人处理信息压力的方式。最后，基于高、中、低计算机视觉处理技术体系，分析混合增强视觉认知架构中部分中高级视觉处理技术的宏观、微观关系，重点综述可视化分析、视觉增强、视觉注意、视觉理解、视觉推理、交互式学习以及认知评估等关键技术。混合增强视觉认知架构有助于突破当前视觉信息认知"弱人工智能"的瓶颈，将有力促进智能视觉系统向人机深度融合方向发展。下一步，还需在纯粹的基础创新、高效的人机交互、柔性的连接通路等方面开展更加深入的研究。     

Facets of simplicity for the smartphone interface: A structural model

Motivated by the need to develop an integrated measure of simplicity perception for a smartphone user interface, our research incorporated visual aesthetics, information design, and task complexity into an extended construct of simplicity. Drawn from three distinct domains of human–computer interaction design and related areas, the new development of a simplicity construct and measurement scales were then validated. The final measurement model consisted of six components: reduction, organization, component complexity, coordinative complexity, dynamic complexity, and visual aesthetics. The following phase aimed at verifying the relationship between simplicity perception of the interface and evaluations of user satisfaction. The hypothesis was accepted that user satisfaction was positively affected by simplicity perception and that the relationship between the two constructs was very strong. The findings imply that a simplified interface design of the task performance, information hierarchy, and visual display attributes contributes to positive satisfaction evaluations when users interact with their smartphone as they engage in communication, information search, and entertainment activities.     

Visual decision support for business ecosystem analysis

This study comparatively evaluates the effectiveness of three visualization methods (list, matrix, network) and the influence of data complexity, task type, and user characteristics on decision performance in the context of business ecosystem analysis. We pursue this objective using an exploratory study with 14 prototypical users (e.g. executives, analysts, investors, and policy makers). The results show that in low complexity contexts, decision performance between visual representations differ but not substantially. In high complexity contexts, however, decision performance suffers significantly if visual representations are not appropriately matched to task types. Our study makes several theoretical and practical contributions. Theoretically, we extend cognitive fit theory by investigating the impact of business ecosystem task type and complexity. Managerially, our study contributes to the relatively underexplored, but emerging area of the design of business ecosystem intelligence tools and presentation of business ecosystem data for the purpose of decision making. We conclude with future research opportunities.     

The effects of graphical encodings on reading performance of the data chart displayed on the periphery of attention

The accuracy and efficiency of estimating the true data value in visualizations is critical to the user interface design for large displays. As a variable, the attention engagement has not been the focus of existing related studies. In the current study, we intended to measure the performance users estimate proportions from a visualization under the low-attention condition. On this purpose, the dual-task paradigm was employed to simulate the scenario that data charts were read simultaneously with searching and memorizing information on the display. We evaluated eight data charts with three graphical encodings (shape, orientation and area) for the proportion value. The experimental results show that the vertical stacked chart is relatively more suitable for quantitative reading under the situation of temporary distraction. This is reflected by the high accuracy of estimation of this chart with relative less time consumption. When data charts are difficult to read, the users tend to pay less attention to information processing and make more inaccurate inferences of this primary task. Graphical encoding and the task time have a significant effect on task performances overall, while the reading accuracy seems not to vary with the difference of the primary task. The present study can be a supplement to the understanding of graphical perception and provide implications for the design of data visualization in display-human interfaces.     

The influence of information presentation formats on complex task decision-making performance

Understanding the influence of information presentation formats on decision-making effectiveness is an important component of human–computer interaction user interface design. The pervasive nature and ease of use associated with information display formats in widely used personal productivity software suggests that decision-makers are likely to create and/or use documents with both text-based and more visually oriented information displays. Past research has investigated the role of these displays on simple decision tasks; however, empirical research has not extended to more complex tasks, more comparable to the types of tasks decision-makers face every day. Results from the empirical analysis suggest that the relationship between information presentation format and decision performance is moderated by the complexity of the task. More specifically, spatial formats result in superior decision accuracy for simple- and complex-spatial tasks and faster decision time for all tasks except the complex-symbolic task where graphs and tables result in equivalent decision time.     

The cognitive task analysis methods for job and task design: review and reappraisal

This paper reviews and reappraises the current research on the cognitive task analysis methodology for job or task design and analysis. Specifically, it classifies the current cognitive task analysis methods for job or task design and analysis, sorts out commonalities and differences among all these cognitive task analysis methodology for job and task design and analysis by conducting pros and cons comparisons, and provides guidelines in selecting cognitive task analysis methods for job and task design and analysis. Moreover, based on the current literature review, a validated human-centered information-processing model for cognitive task performance was developed based on human information processing theory. This new model focuses on identifying all cognitive aspects of human performance in technical work, with the goal of assisting job (re)design to increase human job performance.