城市水价的定价目标、构成和原则

明确了城市水价的四元结构组成，即水资源费、水利工程供水价格、城市供水价格以及污水处理费四部分；提出水价定价目标是政府、消费者和企业三方利益的均衡；从决定水价的政治、经济、社会等综合因素出发，进一步将水价按属性分为资源水价、环境水价和工程水价，并对三种水价的性质和定价原则分别进行了阐述，对全成本核算的适用范围进行了界定。     

Governance structures and their impact on tariff levels of Brazilian water and sanitation corporations

This study analyzes the effect of governance structure on the tariff levels applied by Brazilian corporations of water supply and sanitation. It aims to contribute to the traditional debate of public versus private management, and to determine the effect of regulatory structure on tariff levels. The results first show that, when jointly considered, the water supply and sanitation tariff levels are higher for privately managed corporations. Second, we have found that a corporation regulated by a local agency or a regional agency does not exhibit significantly lower tariff levels than unregulated corporations. Finally, the results indicate that the use of the rate of return and price cap/revenue cap regimes do not provide tariff levels lower than those set via negotiation with the municipality.     

Alternative tariff structures and household composition: Evidence from Spain's Valencia region

Water pricing is one of the fundamental tools for water resources management. However, the current tariff structure in Spain has associated problems in relation to the composition of households. This paper analyses the current tariffs of Spain's Valencia region and studies the effect of alternative tariff structures. The results show an imbalance irrespective of the tariff applied even when the number of household members is considered, as the relationship between the number of household members and water consumption is not linear. Therefore, the problem is not the tariff structure per se but not including the composition of the household in the tariff.     

Adoption of increasing block tariffs (IBTs) among urban water utilities in major cities in China

Increasing block tariffs (IBTs) have been officially endorsed by the Chinese government since 1998, but by the end of 2013, fewer than half of the country’s 36 major cities had adopted IBTs as the tariff structure for their water utilities. Our study examines the main factors affecting these cities’ decisions on whether or not to adopt IBTs, considering both general characteristics of the cities and characteristics of their water utilities. A discrete-time hazard model is used for empirical analysis. Results show that factors most likely to affect a major city’s decision on IBT adoption include the city’s economic development as measured by growth rate of GDP; changes in the relative importance of the domestic water sector; the city’s wastewater treatment rate and leakage rate; and business structure of the water utility.     

A cost–benefit analysis of alternative wastewater treatment standards: a case study in Israel

This paper analyses a number of possible standards for wastewater treatment in Israel from a cost–benefit perspective. Specifically, the paper examines the possibility to introduce stricter standards with respect to both sanitary quality and salinity levels, under the assumption that the treated wastewater is then reused in agriculture. The costs associated with each standard are compared with its expected benefits, and the economically efficient standard is identified. As wastewater reuse in agriculture is an attractive option for countries suffering from water scarcity, it is important to develop guidelines for optimal public policy in the field, and herein lies the main contribution of the paper.     

Wastewater reuse potential analysis: implications for China's water resources management

It has been recognized that wastewater reuse or reclamation serves as an efficient and valuable way to cope with the scarcity of water resources and severity of water pollution. This paper presents the systematic framework of wastewater reuse potential estimation. Based on the regional disparities in China, a linear programming optimization model is developed to explore the potential wastewater reuse quantities, under physical and economic constraints. Sensitivity analysis and Robust Counterpart (RC) optimization are performed to discuss the influences of key parameters and the reuse quantity's decision making under uncertainty. Based on the model, effectiveness of different policy scenarios of water price changes are simulated and evaluated, providing information regarding China's water and wastewater management.     

An analysis of the price escalation of non-linear water tariffs for domestic uses in Spain

Efficient and sustainable water resource use and management is becoming increasingly important, especially in regions under water stress. The use of increasing block pricing involving an escalation or progressivity of unit prices in tariff systems is an economic instrument that contributes to achieving this objective. More progressive tariffs are expected to contribute to a better allocation of resources and avoid their wastage. This article analyses the determinants of the price escalation of water supply tariffs in Spain, a country subject to a high water stress throughout most of its territory. The main objective is to discern whether differences in the degree of progressivity in the tariffs are explained fully by climatic and scarcity factors or are, instead, disproportionately affected by political and business criteria. Data from 967 municipalities are analysed using conditional mixed process (CMP) modelling. Among the obtained results, we find that tariff escalation is influenced by factors related to the environment in which the service is supplied, as well as by factors related to the decision makers’ own strategic choices.     

Tariffs,price conjectures and welfare in an open spatial economy

This paper examines the implications of a tariff increase in a spatial model of an open economy with price conjectures between domestic and foreign producers of non-identical goods. Households are mobile and location and rent adjustments are influenced by pricing policies. It is shown that, although the equilibrium configuration of the economy is sensitive to the prevailing combination of conjectural variations, the effects of a tariff increase are qualitatively consistent across alternative, and perhaps asymmetric, price conjectures. The tariff reduces the endogenous mill price of the import, increases its post-tariff delivered price throughout the economy, and induces a decrease in both the mill and delivered price of the domestic good. Location and rent adjustments cause the common equilibrium level of household utility to decline with an increase in the tariff, regardless of the particular mix of conjectural variations. Domestic consumer utility can only be restored to its initial (world norm) level by out-migration.     

Effect of electricity price reform on households’ electricity consumption in urban Ethiopia

Until recently, the price of electricity in Ethiopia was among the lowest in the world. Such low prices have contributed to a substantial financial deficit for the government-owned electric utility and led to a degradation in the quality of electricity services delivered to customers. In December 2018, the utility increased the electricity tariff to help to finance improvements in the quality of electricity services. This paper studies the effect of the revised tariff on urban household electricity consumption and alternative fuel expenditure. The study relied on two rounds of household survey data and six years of electricity consumption data from the utility company. The study finds that prepaid customers reduced their electricity consumption by about 22 kWh per month in the post-tariff-adjustment periods, equivalent to about 10% of electricity expenditure and 14% of daily consumption. In the overall sample, however, consumption slightly increased over time. These results imply that the price elasticity of demand for electricity in urban Ethiopia is highly inelastic. Moreover, households did not shift substantially toward the use of alternative fuels. The findings indicate that governments and utilities in settings where electricity is priced well below cost-covering levels may be able to increase revenues and improve their balance sheets with relatively modest effects on households’ electricity consumption, though effects from more substantial tariff hikes should be examined.     

Socio‐economic impacts of the pharmaceuticals detection and activated carbon treatment technology in water management – an example from the Czech Republic

The fast development of laboratory methods has revealed increased amounts of trace concentrations of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCP) in waste waters in the Czech Republic. This paper focuses on the expected costs to solve this problem by quaternary treatment of waste water based on activated carbon filtration. The one‐time investment costs in 155 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) with a capacity of over 10 000 population equivalent (PE) would represent an amount of around 300 million EUR. The increase in end‐user operating costs would be 0.4 EUR/m³, which would mean a 15% increase in water and sewage costs. A sociological survey showed that most respondents (65%) would agree with an increase in price but only by 10%. Currently the cost of the quaternary treatment of wastewater is based primarily on estimates. Therefore changes in legislation leading to stricter limits and an increase in the efficiency of wastewater treatment should be preceded by additional applied research.     

The new Italian water tariff method: A launching point for novel infrastructures or a backwards step?

In Italy recently the regulatory authority for electricity, gas and the water industry was mandated to design a new tariff method more consistent with EU standards of ‘full cost recovery’ and the ‘polluter pays’ rules. This paper attempts to highlight the strengths and limitations of this new method, its actual effects on tariffs, financial plans and utilities' investment policy, compared to the previous method, with a focus on the effects of the tariff method for both users and utilities. A case study was selected and this included the biggest water utility controlled by the local water authority in Verona province.     

Poverty and environmental impacts of electricity price reforms in Montenegro

The creation of the Energy Community of South Eastern Europe in 2005 committed countries in South Eastern Europe to liberalize their energy markets in accordance to EU regulations. The Government of Montenegro is thus in the process of reforming its energy sector, which includes an electricity tariff reform. This paper analyzes the environmental and social impacts of an increase in residential electricity tariffs contemplated – which is expected to range anywhere from 40 to over 100% increase. As this analysis shows, such a significant price rise will impose a heavy burden on the poor households and it may adversely affect the environment. In an ex ante investigation of the welfare impact of this price increase on households in Montenegro, we show that the anticipated price increase will result in a very significant increase in households' energy expenditures. A simulation of alternative policy measures analyzes the impact of different tariff levels and structures, focusing on the poor and vulnerable households. Higher electricity prices could also significantly increase the proportion of households using fuelwood for space heating. Thus the level of fuelwood consumption should be carefully monitored under the electricity tariff reforms and the Government of Montenegro should combine the tariff reforms with a carefully evaluated set of policy measures to mitigate the effect of the electricity price increase on the poor.     

Towards sustainable urban water services in developing countries: tariffs based on willingness-to-pay studies

ABSTRACT

Water supply and sanitation (WASH) service providers in most towns of developing countries, such as Godey Town in Ethiopia, the case study reported in this paper, deliver less than basic services. The costs for meeting the more ambitious WASH targets of the Sustainable Development Goals will be much higher than what has previously been invested in the sector. This study showed that a tariff structure designed using affordability and willingness-to-pay data would provide higher revenues than one solely based on estimated customers’ affordability, or Ethiopian government’s tariff guidelines. As in previous studies in Ethiopia, this study highlights government’s low willingness-to-charge amidst a high customers’ willingness-to-pay. Yet, there is need to increase water tariffs in developing countries, hence, moving towards financial sustainability and supplementing the other two Ts – taxes and transfers. Based on accurate and updated socio-economic data, the tariff can also be optimised to fulfil the social equity objective.     

What affects public acceptance of recycled and desalinated water?

This paper identifies factors that are associated with higher levels of public acceptance for recycled and desalinated water. For the first time, a wide range of hypothesized factors, both of socio-demographic and psychographic nature, are included simultaneously. The key results, based on a survey study of about 3000 respondents are that: (1) drivers of the stated likelihood of using desalinated water differ somewhat from drivers of the stated likelihood of using recycled water; (2) positive perceptions of, and knowledge about, the respective water source are key drivers for the stated likelihood of usage; and (3) awareness of water scarcity, as well as prior experience with using water from alternative sources, increases the stated likelihood of use. Practical recommendations for public policy makers, such as key messages to be communicated to the public, are derived.     

Tariff (un)sustainability in contexts of price (in)stability: The case of the Buenos Aires water and sanitation concession

We aim to analyze tariff sustainability in the Buenos Aires water and sanitation concession amidst price instability. We use the 3Ts model (Tariff, Taxes and Transfers) to discuss tariff resetting from 2002 to 2019. We show that both level and tariff structure reflect the national administrations' preferences as regards service cost allocation among stakeholders. Despite the efforts, revenue has been below operative expenditure, which shows the company's difficulty to remain operationally sustainable and the differences between the ex-ante and ex-post burden of the three Ts. We suggest recommendations for the regulator to shield the sector against price instability.     

Challenges of recycled water pricing

Recycled water has posed new challenges for conventional water supply and wastewater provision models, as it interconnects different related services. The reclaimed water sector faces the arduous task of setting specific pricing policies since rules for potable water and wastewater charges may not be appropriate for it. This article addresses a review of current challenges in pricing policies for recycled water based on case studies available worldwide, highlighting the most common tariff structures in use and the principles applied, providing a guideline for recycled water pricing based on the barriers, drivers, and practices found around the global experiences and academic literature. The results show that different tariff structures are adopted based on local socioeconomic factors and water authorities’ objectives. We conclude that the local environmental conditions, the institutional arrangement, technical and economic specificities are influence factors that decision-makers should consider when setting recycled water charges.     

A diagnostic tool for estimating the incidence of subsidies delivered by water utilities in low- and medium-income countries,with illustrative simulations

It is conventional wisdom that poor households use less water than rich households, and intuition suggests that an increasing block tariff with a lifeline block will target subsidies to poor households. In this paper we provide a simple diagnostic tool that a water utility can use to estimate the distribution of subsidies to households in different income quintiles and to check whether this intuition about the incidence of subsidies is correct in a specific local service area. The results of our illustrative simulations calibrated using data from low- and medium-income countries, show that subsidies delivered through the most common tariff structures are very poorly targeted to poor households. This finding holds regardless of the specific characteristics of the tariff structure used to calculate households’ water bills. We also find that the higher the correlation between household income and water use, the lower the proportion of total subsidies received by poor households.     

Infrastructure epistemologies: water,wastewater and displaced persons in Germany

Recent years have seen historically unprecedented global disaster migration; in 2016 Germany received 1.3 million displaced individuals. Regardless of past resources and future potential, disaster migrants are a new, vulnerable population. This new population increases demand for water and wastewater infrastructure services, despite being temporarily unable to pay for services. As such, this kind of sudden population increase is a resiliency challenge for the receiving infrastructure systems. Qualitative analysis of 1,884 open-ended survey responses was blended with a statistical analysis to discover how and why the German public perceives water and sanitation services have been provided to the disaster migrants. Unprompted, 36% (112/314) of respondents referenced at least one of three infrastructure epistemologies, including water and wastewater as a service, as a basic need, and as a human right. These epistemologies share statistically significant relationships with how long respondents feel water and wastewater should be provided to displaced persons. A temporally limited, normative perception of water and sanitation as a humanitarian good functions to enable water and wastewater infrastructure to deliver a high level of service despite the significant disruption of the large and vulnerable population influx, and has practical implications for the structure of cost recovery.     

Urban water management strategies based on a total urban water cycle model and energy aspects – Case study for Tel Aviv

Global change pressures such as climate change, water scarcity, population growth, full urbanisation of catchments and rising energy costs may increasingly affect the urban water system of Tel Aviv. These challenges formed the incentive for a multidisciplinary Learning Alliance of water sector institutions to embark on a process to identify ways to improve sustainability of the city's water system. Sustainability indicators were identified and a whole-of-system water balance model (AquaCycle) was used to score the indicators for future scenarios and strategies. Strategies included rainwater harvesting, stormwater use, permeable pavements, and wastewater reuse. The effect of the strategies on total water imported into the city was a reduction of 10% by rainwater harvesting and 32% by wastewater reuse at cluster scale. The latter strategy reduced energy consumption from 2.89 kWh per m³ of volume of water used (import + reuse) in the current situation to 2.45 kWh per m³.