The parameters measurement of air–water two phase flow using the electrical resistance tomography (ERT) technique in a bubble column

The air–water two-phase flow is investigated in a bubble column with a height of 2 m and a diameter of 0.282 m by using the Electrical Resistance Tomography (ERT) technique. The flow characterization are measured by applying ERT sensors of three vertical sections with superficial gas velocities in the range 0.027–0.156 m/s. Based on the cross-correlation technique and dynamic gas disengagement (DGD) theory, the bubble Saunter diameters are obtained and the local axial velocity about two phases flow can be calculated. The results show that with increased gas superficial velocity the distribution of bubble size is gradually widespread. Moreover, the local velocity of gas bubble swarm has a center peak distribution with increased gas superficial velocity.     

Electrical resistance tomography coupled with differential pressure measurement to determine phase hold-ups in gas–liquid–solid outer loop bubble column

Radial variation of the gas hold-ups and mean hold-ups are investigated in a 90 mm outer loop bubble column using electrical resistance tomography (ERT) with two axial locations (Plane 1 and Plane 2). In all the experiments, air is used as the gas phase, tap water as liquid phase, and polypropylene particles as solid phase where the superficial gas velocity is varied from 0.02 to 0.25 m/s. The effect of operating conditions, solid concentration on mean hold-ups and radial gas hold-ups distribution is discussed. Gas hold-ups and solid hold-ups results using ERT are in very good agreement with conventional estimation and correlations obtained using pressure transmitter methods. Meanwhile, the results show that the gas hold-ups in the centre region increase constantly with an increase in the superficial gas velocity, namely there is a maximum hold-up at the centre of cross-section. But, solid hold-ups distribution is very homogeneous for high gas velocity. According to the visible image, the gas–liquid flow behaviours are obtained for gas–liquid–solid outer loop bubble column. Furthermore, the results also indicate that ERT is a very powerful tool for diagnosing the ‘inside’ flow behaviour of gas–liquid–solid three phase bubble column.     

Experimental PIV and LIF characterization of a bubble column flow

Experimental 2D Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) measurements, with uniform background lighting and Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) of the tracking particles, were performed in order to characterize the air-water biphasic flow and the 2D bubble column rising velocity in static water. Some applications require knowledge of the simultaneity of two-phase flow characteristics. The two phase flow air/water are common application in industry as chemical, hydraulic and nuclear industry, water treatment by aeration, and measurements are implemented to characterize the behaviour of the air bubbles column flow. The bubble flow studied in this paper is related to the optimization of the aeration in hydraulic turbines with micro-bubbles. The first step of this study, presented in the paper, is a complete characterization of a bubble column issued from a metallic sparger with holes of 0.5 mm diameter. For its complete characterization is determined simultaneously, via image processing technics, the flow velocity field induced by the column of bubbles in water, and the bubbles features: the bubble ascension velocity, diameter variation, interfacial area and shape factor. The results are compared with bibliographical data.     

Comparison between wire-mesh sensor and ultra-fast X-ray tomograph for an air–water flow in a vertical pipe

A comparison between ultra-fast X-ray CT and a wire-mesh sensor is presented. The measurements were carried out in a vertical pipe of 42 mm inner diameter, which was supplied with an air–water mixture. Both gas and liquid superficial velocities were varied. The X-ray CT delivered 263 frames per second, while the wire-mesh sensor was operated at a frequency four times higher. Two different gas injectors were used: four orifices of 5 mm diameter for creating large bubbles and gas plugs and a sintered plate with a pore size of 100 μm for generating a bubbly flow. It was found that the wire-mesh sensor has a significantly higher resolution than the X-ray CT. Small bubbles, which are clearly shown by the wire-mesh sensor, cannot be found in the CT images, because they cross the measuring plane before a complete scan can be performed. This causes artifacts in the reconstructed images, instead. Furthermore, there are large deviations between the quantitative information contained in the reconstructed tomographic 2D distributions and the gas fractions measured by the sensor, while the agreement is very good when the gas fraction is obtained by a direct evaluation of the X-ray attenuation along the available through-transmission chords of the tomography set-up. This shows that there is still potential for an improvement of the image reconstruction method. Concerning the wire-mesh sensor it was found that the gas fraction inside large bubbles is slightly underestimated. Furthermore, a significant distortion of large Taylor bubbles by the sensor was found for small liquid velocities up to 0.24 m/s. This effect vanished with growing superficial water velocity.     

Effect of superhydrophobic surfaces on bubble column flow dynamics

Bubbly flow in bubble column reactors promotes mixing necessary for many chemical processes. We show that if superhydrophobic-coated material is introduced into a bubble column, there can be a substantial difference in gas holdup and earlier initiation of churn-turbulent flow which can alter larger-scale mixing without a need to change the superficial gas velocity. Addition of superhydrophobic surface can also cause bubbles to (directly or indirectly assisted by the surface) escape faster to the free surface resulting in a reduced void fraction (i.e., reduced gas holdup). As the flow becomes optically opaque at few percent gas phase volume fraction, we utilize two dual plane wire mesh sensors to obtain velocity profiles and bubble size distributions, in addition to the traditional pressure and level based gas holdup measurements to calculate average phase fraction. Additionally, a custom build photon-counting dual energy threshold X-ray computed tomography system is employed to get a higher resolution measurement of the time average phase fraction non-intrusively. We report satisfactory agreement between these techniques with differences arising for understood reasons, and use the insight thus yielded to discuss the effect of superhydrophobic surfaces on bubble column flow dynamics.     

Characterization of the hydrodynamic flow regime in bubble columns via computed tomography

The current work evaluates the potential of Computed Tomography (CT) measurements for flow regime characterization. Experiments were carried out in a pilot scale (0.162 m diameter) bubble column using an air–Therminol LT system at ambient as well high operating pressures (0.4 and 1 MPa). The superficial gas velocities were varied from 1 to 20 cm/s at intervals of 1 cm/s. The steepness of the gas holdup radial profile was analyzed to demarcate the hydrodynamic flow regime. The regime transition velocities obtained from CT measurements are compared with the drift flux model. An increase in operating pressure was found to delay the regime transition and at higher pressures, a transition occurred over a range of superficial gas velocities. The current state of correlation prediction is evaluated against the experimental transition velocities.     

Tomographic KT-1 signature of phase-fraction distributions in multiphase bubble columns

Characterization of multiphase bubble column flow conditions is performed via the KT-1 signature route of computerized tomography (CT). Cross-sectional images of the bubble column are used for this study. These images were obtained non-invasively by the dual energy X-ray CT developed at Leibniz University Hannover. The solid phase is polyvinyl chloride (PVC) granules, the liquid phase is water and the gaseous phase is air. A convolution back-projection algorithm is used for tomographic reconstruction. Quantification of CT images (obtained for various combinations of liquid velocity, gas velocity and solid concentration of bubble column) is performed using CT fundamentals. The use of KT-1 as a tool for further analysis (of physical phenomenon from CT images) is demonstrated giving a very good insight into bubble column physics.     

Uncertainty and intrusiveness of three-layer wire-mesh sensor

A wire-mesh sensor (WMS) has been applied to estimate the bubble velocity of an air-water bubbly flow in a vertical channel with a square cross-section. The WMS provides instantaneous cross-sectional gas fraction distributions which are measured by detecting the local electrical conductivity between two electrode wires crossing each other at right angles. The applied WMS has three planes of wire grids separated by 1.5 mm in the axial direction. The wires of the central grid are used as transmitter electrodes, while the wires of the two external grids are connected to the receiver inputs of the electronic unit. In this way, the sensor has two measuring planes, located between the transmitter grid and both receiver planes. Individual bubble diameters are calculated from the measured gas fraction data by using a bubble identification algorithm, and the bubble velocity is evaluated by cross-correlating the instantaneous gas fraction profiles. In case of WMS measurements, the intrusive effects caused by the wires cannot be neglected. In this study, the effect of the intrusive WMS on the bubble velocity was studied by high speed camera (HSC) observation. Bubble parameters were extracted from both WMS and HSC data. A comparison of bubble size and velocity was carried out for each bubble individually. It was found that bubbles are strongly decelerated when they collide with the wire grids in case of low liquid velocities. The effect decreases with growing liquid velocity and finally turns into a slight acceleration which corresponds to the degree of the cross-section obstruction by the wires.     

多尺度气泡尺寸分布数字图像测量方法研究

鼓泡塔是一种广泛应用于能源和环境领域的多相流反应器,鼓泡塔中气泡的大小和浓度对于研究鼓泡塔中"三传一反"过程具有重要意义。采用高速摄像法和数字图像处理技术开展了鼓泡塔中内多尺度气泡尺寸分布测量研究,针对气泡识别过程中密集气泡易发生重叠的问题,提出基于曲率计算的凹点匹配与圆周拟合的重叠气泡分割与轮廓重构算法。搭建了鼓泡塔反应器实验装置,针对星型、均匀和方形3种不同进气孔形态的气泡分布器开展了实验研究,分析了不同尺度气泡的尺寸分布规律。试验结果表明:该算法不仅能够有效地从图像中提取轮廓清晰完整的气泡,而且能够对图像粘连重叠的气泡进行准确分割,从而可精确地获得多尺度气泡尺寸分布。随着气体流量的增加,小气泡的数量急剧增加,同时产生更大的气泡;气泡的最大直径和Sauter平均直径均随气体流量的增加而增大,且两者的比值基本保持不变,即分布器形式对气泡尺寸分布均匀性有影响,方形分布器产生气泡最均匀,气含率相对其他两种分布器更高。实验结果证明了图像分割与轮廓重构方法在气液两相流中气泡参数在线测量的可行性。     

Characterisation of a high concentration ionic bubble column using electrical resistance tomography

Attentions has been given to ionic liquids as an alternative physical solvent for carbon dioxide (CO₂) absorption because of their potential for gas selectivity, absorption capacity and low desorption energy by tailoring the molecules. Ionic liquid normally have a high viscosity, which influences the performance of absorption processes, and therefore, efficiency. This study investigates the hydrodynamics of ionic liquids in a two-phase gas–liquid flow by determination of the bubble formation, distribution of gas and bubble velocity profiles. A dual plane electrical resistance tomography (ERT) system and an optical imaging device were applied to a bubble column reactor of 50 mm internal diameter for the study. The model ionic liquids were aqueous solutions of sodium chloride (NaCl) with conductivity adjusted by altering the concentration of NaCl. Gas holdup has been estimated by analyses of conductivity data obtained from ERT by application of Maxwell's relationship which reveals significant increase in gas holdup as ionic concentration increases and is in good agreement with other studies.     

Quality check of wire-mesh sensor measurements in a vertical air/water flow

Extensive measurements were executed for a vertical upward air/water flow to generate a high-quality database for the development and validation of CFD-Codes for two-phase flows (e.g. for models on bubble forces or on coalescence and break-up). Thereto, in a pipe with a nominal diameter of 200 mm, the wire-mesh sensor technology was used. The present paper aims on the assessment of uncertainty caused by the experimental procedure and especially global deviations arising from the use of the wire-mesh sensor technology. Special attention was paid to the plausibility and accuracy of the data regarding the evolution of the vertical multiphase flow. In the result, a clear and consistent trend regarding their evolution with increasing distance from the position of the gas injection was found. Comparisons of the trend of time and cross-section averaged gas volume fraction along the pipe height with the theoretically expected values were carried out. From the measured radial profiles of the void fraction and the velocity of the gas phase, the superficial gas velocity at the wire-mesh sensor is integrated over the cross-section and compared with the set value from the test matrix. Thus, a general uncertainty analysis of the sensor data is possible.     

气液两相流中上升气泡体积的计算方法

通过高速摄像机拍摄气液两相流中上升气泡的运动过程,分别记录不同直径的气孔所产生的单个气泡上升过程的连续图像,结合数字图像处理技术,提取了气泡的面积、当量直径、几何中心、速度、加速度等特征参数.并在此基础上,应用两种计算气泡体积的方法:几何方法和受力分析法,实现了气泡体积的初步计算.几何方法计算气泡体积是根据图像中气泡的形状构造一个与气泡体积相当的椭球体,进而计算椭球体的体积;而受力分析的方法则是通过分析气泡在垂直方向上的受力情况,根据牛顿第二定律推导出气泡体积的计算公式.并对两种方法计算出的气泡体积值进行分析对比,阐明了这两种方法适用情况,计算出单个气泡上升情况下的气相体积含气率.     

A non-intrusive probe for bubble profile and velocity measurement in horizontal slug flows

A new technique was developed for measuring the profile and mean velocity of elongated bubbles in horizontal air–water slug flows. It is based on the capacitance between two thin electrodes mounted on the external surface of a dielectric pipe, and has advantages in relation to the traditional parallel wire technique, since it is not intrusive, the presence of impurities in the liquid phase has no influence on the probe response, and it is applicable to very low electrical conductivity liquids, such as oils and deionized water. Tests were performed in an experimental facility with a 5 m long, 34 mm internal diameter Plexiglas pipeline. The elongated bubble mean velocity was determined by using a cross correlation technique applied to the signals coming from two identical capacitance probes, mounted 50 mm distant from each other. The results were compared with an empirical correlation from the literature. Discordance was observed only for flows near the flow pattern transition regions in the flow pattern map.     

Characterization of multiphase flow in bubble columns using KT-1 signature and fractal dimension

This work presents the analysis of phase fraction distribution in bubble column reactor using KT-1 signature and fractal dimension. The experiment was carried out using X-ray CT scanner at Leibniz University Hannover. Convolution back projection algorithm is used to obtain the cross-sectional attenuation coefficient distribution. Individual phase distributions of the three phases (air, water and PVC), across the column cross-section, have been obtained using dual energy X-ray tomography. This paper reports measurement of phase fraction distribution at a cross-section level located at 3.2 m from the inlet. The effect of variation of PVC concentration on phase fraction distribution of air and PVC has been investigated. Analysis of reconstructed phase fraction using KT-1 signature and fractal dimension reveals interesting information regarding the flow regime transition and mixing phenomenon in the bubble column.     

Optimisation of four-sensor probes for measuring bubble velocity components in bubbly air-water and oil-water flows

In a previous paper Lucas and Mishra (2005) [3] a local four-sensor conductance probe was introduced to measure the velocity vectors of dispersed bubbles in bubbly two-phase flow in which the continuous phase is water. There are a very limited number of alternative methods available for bubble velocity vector measurement with which results from, for example, computational fluid dynamic models can be compared and so the four-sensor probe technique is of interest to the multiphase flow community. In the previous paper [3] a mathematical model was presented to calculate the velocity vector of each gas bubble from seven time intervals which were measured using the output signals from each of four ‘needle’ conductance sensors located within the probe. In the present paper, a new technique for making the local four-sensor probe is introduced to minimise interference with the measured bubbles. A new signal processing method is presented using criteria to ensure that (i) the group of sensor signals from which the bubble velocity vector is to be determined are all produced by the same bubble and (ii) bubbles which contact the local four-sensor probe in an ambiguous manner are ignored. The accuracy with which the locations of each of the rear sensors in the probe relative to the lead sensor can be measured influences the accuracy with which the bubble velocity vector can be measured. However, the degree to which the accuracy of the measured velocity vector is affected by errors in the measured probe dimensions is dependent upon the geometrical arrangement of the four sensors within the probe. Experimental results and an error analysis are presented which show that the susceptibility of the velocity vector measurement technique to errors in the measured probe dimensions is reduced if the geometrical arrangement of the four sensors is optimised. As a result of this initial work, an optimised probe, known as the P30 probe, was designed and built and results obtained from the P30 probe in swirling oil-in-water bubbly flow are presented. A probe calibration factor is defined in this paper which can be interpreted as a measure of the interference of a probe with the motion of the bubbles with which it interacts. For the probes described in this paper the calibration factor was found to be much closer to unity than for previous four-sensor probes described in the literature (e.g. [3]) suggesting that these new probes have a much smaller effect on the bubbles’ motion than previous probes.     

Bubble sizes and shapes in a counter-current bubble column with pure and binary liquid phases

It is generally admitted that the “global-scale” behavior of bubble columns is imposed by the “local-scale” phenomena. For this reason, understanding the fluid dynamics in bubble columns relies on the precise knowledge of the so-called “birth and life” of bubbles. A-priori knowledge of the bubble sizes and shapes is required to characterize the “local-scale”, to understand the “global-scale”, to set-up and validate numerical models, as well as to support scaling-up methods towards the “industrial-scale”. This paper contributes to the present-day discussion by proposing an experimental research devoted to clarify the relationships between the bubble sizes and shapes, the integral flow parameters, and the liquid phase properties. The experimental study, based on a bubble-identification methods, was performed in a “large-scale” bubble column (inner diameter equal to 0.24 m, height equal to 5.3 m) operated in the batch and in the counter-current modes with pure (deionized water) and binary (mixture of ethanol and deionized water) liquid phases. The system was operated in the pseudo-homogeneous flow regime with superficial gas velocities in the range of 0.0037–0.0188 m/s and superficial liquid velocity, in the counter-current mode, equal to −0.066 m/s. In the different experimental runs, bubble size distributions and shapes were obtained at different radial and axial locations. The experimental observations have been presented, compared with literature correlations, used to develop novel correlations (to be applied in practical applications), compared with previously obtained experimental data and interpreted in a multi-scale point of view. The comprehensive dataset obtained within this research may be used to improve the validation of numerical approaches and, in particular, to tackle the unsolved issue of developing break-up and coalescence kernels.     

Capacitance wire mesh imaging of bubbly flows for offshore treatment applications

The impact of ship motion on bubbly flow was emulated using a swell simulator to expose flow structure changes emerging in bubble columns relevant to offshore floating applications. Roll, roll+pitch, yaw, heave and sway were implemented at various frequencies and changes in bubbly flow resulting from the imposed motions were monitored for the first time by means of a dual capacitance wire mesh sensor to measure local gas holdup and velocity. Visualizations of the two-phase flow revealed that roll, roll+pitch, and high-frequency sway were the most impactful in terms of bubble zigzag and swirl, and bubble-clustering and segregation due to vessel dynamic inclinations. As a consequence of these motions, lateral migration of bubbles and their clustering enhanced liquid recirculation and local streamwise gas velocity. Compared to static vertical bubble column, bubbly flow pattern was barely altered by yaw and low-frequency sway except the heave displacements which tended to slowdown the bubble rise.     

Estimation of bubble size distributions and shapes in two-phase bubble column using image analysis and optical probes

A precise estimation of bubble size distributions and shapes is required to characterize the bubble column fluid dynamics at the “bubble-scale”, and to evaluate the heat and mass transfer rate in bubble column reactors. Image analysis methods can be used to measure the bubble size distributions and shapes; unfortunately, these experimental techniques are limited to resolve bubble clusters and large void fractions, and can not be applied under relevant operating conditions (e.g., high temperature and pressure). On the other hand, needle probes (i.e, optical and conductive probes) can be used to measure bubble sizes in dense bubbly flows and under relevant operating conditions; however, needle probes measure chord length distributions, which should be converted into bubble size distributions by using statistical algorithms. These algorithms rely on correlations—generally obtained for single droplets/bubbles—that predicts the bubble shapes, by relating the bubble equivalent diameter to the bubble aspect ratio. In this paper, we contribute to the existing discussion through an experimental study regarding the bubble sizes and aspect ratio in a large air-water bubble column. The experimental investigation has consisted in gas holdup, image analysis and optical probe measurements. First, the gas holdup measurements have been used to identify the flow regime transition between the homogeneous flow regime and the transition flow regime. Secondly, the homogeneous flow regime has been described at the “bubble-scale”: chord length distributions and bubble size distributions have been obtained by using an optical probe and image analysis, respectively. Based on the experimental data from the image analysis, a correlation between the bubble equivalent diameter and the bubble aspect ratio has been proposed and has been compared with existing correlations. Finally, the chord length distributions have been converted into bubble size distributions using a statistical method, supported by the aspect ratio obtained through image analysis. The proposed approach has been able to estimate correctly the bubble size distributions at the center of the column then near the wall. We have also demonstrated that the correlations used to predicts the bubble shapes are the main point of improvement in the method.     

Volume and rate measurement of slowly generated gas bubbles

The use of an inverted burette arrangement that allowed volume and time-course tracking of bubble movement via camera imaging is shown here to improve on the classical inverted jar (or beaker) method for measuring gases generated in small volumes and at slow rates (below 1 mL/s). In tests involving discrete gas volume measurements delivered at 0.57 mL/s, comparison with pre-set air volume delivered by a syringe pump showed high correspondence, linearity, and repeatability. Tests with continuous gas flows at 0.2, 0.32 and 0.57 mL/s revealed average bubble count versus volume trends that displayed high linearity to indicate that the bubble volumes (at any flowrate) were constant. The average bubble count versus time also showed linear trends and repeatability indicating that the time intervals between the appearance of any two bubbles (at a particular flowrate) were uniform. The analytical and simulated results helped to explain why bubble size determination by high speed camera recording for measuring gas volume and flowrate is fraught with inherent problems. An analysis using light ray tracing showed that flowrate determination using such an approach would necessitate complicated image correction when two cameras are used for simultaneous recording due to distortion effects resulting from refraction. A virtual gate approach involving the binarization of images recorded with a standard camera is shown to be more feasible in establishing the flowrate using bubble counting or finding the time interval between bubbles.     

Experimental study of bubbly swirling flow in a vertical tube using ultrasonic velocity profiler (UVP) and wire mesh sensor (WMS)

Two-phase air-water bubbly swirling flow through a pipe is a complex turbulent flow and its prediction is still challenging. The present paper describes the experimental investigation of the air-water bubbly swirling flow in vertical co-current flow. Swirling flow is induced by a twisted tape in a 20 mm inner diameter pipe. The flow is investigated using Ultrasonic velocity profiler (UVP), which allows the measurement of liquid and gas velocities simultaneously. Furthermore, simultaneous measurement of void fraction is performed using Wire mesh sensor (WMS). The experimental results reveal that swirling flow has significant impact on bubbles’ distribution. In low liquid flow rate, the average bubble velocity is fairly uniform along the radial position and void fraction increases in the near wall region. However, increasing liquid flow rate at constant gas flow rate leads to increase in void fraction in the core region, this is mainly due to drift velocity which is affected by centrifugal force. Experimental findings and parametric trends based on the effects of swirling flow are summarized and discussed.