Study on Spatial-Temporal Evolution of Residential Differentiation in Shanghai from an Employee Perspective

Against a background of deepened globalization, the socio-spatial distribution characteristics of the employed population are one of the important perspectives that reflect the impact of globalization on urban social space. Based on data of the population census of Shanghai in 2000 and 2010, using location quotient and index of dissimilarity, this paper analyzes the residential differentiation evolution in Shanghai from 2000 to 2010. The results show that except the high-end service industry, the residential differentiation of the employees in the other three types of industries has intensified but is not serious. In addition, the proportion of employees in high-end service industry within the Middle Ring has increased, while that of employees in the middle-and low-end service industry beyond the Middle Ring has increased, which further proves that globalization has an increasingly obvious impact on the socio-spatial differentiation in Shanghai. However, the adjustment in spatial development made by the Shanghai municipal government in response to globalization makes the socio-spatial evolution of Shanghai greatly different from the suburbanization of social elites in the West.     

Spatial variation of in-migration to Moscow: Testing the effect of housing market

The collapse of state socialism and the introduction of market relationships in Central and Eastern Europe resulted in profound changes of urban development. Evidence from Central and Eastern Europe indicates that the development of a strong housing market and growing material inequalities contribute to the socio-economic polarization of city districts and residential segregation. Based on empirical data, we analyze spatial variation of migrants' first residential choices within Moscow, i.e. intensity of in-migration to a specific district. We test the theory-driven hypotheses about the association between residential choices and housing prices. Our results show that there are some areas that attract migrants of specific socio-economic status. However, housing prices do not explain a substantial share of variance in the intensities of in-migration, at least at the level of city districts; quite a strong association is only evident for foreign migrants. Thus, we find limited evidence of the Moscow' socio-spatial structure polarization due to the residential choices of migrants.     

Black Residential Segregation in the City and Suburbs of Detroit: Does Socioeconomic Status Matter?

According to ecological theory, the socioeconomic status of a minority group is inversely related to the group's level of residential segregation from the majority group. This article determines whether the level of black socioeconomic status is related to the level of black residential segregation in the city of Detroit and Detroit's suburbs. Data were obtained from the U.S. Bureau of Census, 1990 Summary Tape Files 4‐A. The methods employed to measure residential segregation were the indexes of dissimilarity D and isolation P*. Indexes were computed by census tract to measure segregation and isolation between blacks and whites at the same level of occupation, income, or education. The results revealed that residential segregation between blacks and whites remained high (i.e., above 50%) in both the city and the suburbs despite comparable socioeconomic status. Blacks in the suburbs were more segregated and isolated than blacks in the city at each socioeconomic level.     

大都市核心区的社会空间隔离--以上海市静安区南京西路街道为例

当今,我国城市正经历着重要的社会转型,一方面新的社会阶层的成长使得社会结构更加复杂,另一方面全球化和经济重组则趋于导向增长的社会极化.就空间趋势而言,隔离已在多种尺度上出现.大都市核心区马赛克状的隔离是不平衡开发的直接产物,而一个极化的居住结构是日益锐化的社会经济隔离的自然结果.通过对上海市静安区南京西路街道地区的案例,研究了大都市核心区的社会空间隔离.     

Evaluating the land use patterns of medium-sized Hellenic cities

Land use morphology has profound effects both on city functions and peri-urban areas. They can either lead to conflicts with negative side effects or generate positive synergies. This study focuses on land use spatial configurations and interprets the interactions among them. In order to evaluate spatial planning policies, the measurement of urban land use patterns is considered to play an important role in the urban development process and deserves further attention. A comparative analysis of the land use patterns of the medium-sized Hellenic cities is attempted, there are also used using pre-existing metrics, some new data from the European Environment Agency Urban Atlas 2006 geodataset and population and construction census data concerning the last decade from the national Hellenic Statistical Authority data set. The Larger Urban Zones of the medium-sized Hellenic cities are chosen as a suitable study level based both on population size and socio-spatial procedures. The results provide interesting information about the diversification among medium-sized cities, while some particularities concerning urban procedures appear to emerge for some of them. Many discussion points arise from this study concerning the data availability, the method, the functional city area delineation and the Larger Urban Zones definition.     

THE RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION OF AMERICAN INDIANS IN METROPOLITAN AREAS OF MICHIGAN

American Indian or Native American residential segregation is viewed within the general framework of ecological theory. According to theorists of human ecology, variation in segregation between groups relates directly to measurable differences on social and economic variables. This study uses 1980 census tract data and the index of dissimilarity to measure the extent of residential segregation in Michigan's 12 Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas. Correlation coefficients were computed to assess whether a strong relationship exists between the residential segregation of American Indians and the spatial distribution of housing value and rent. The findings revealed that Indian-white residential segregation is lower than black-white segregation and that American Indians are more segregated from blacks than from whites. The segregated distribution pattern of American Indians is not strongly related to the cost of housing.     

Social and spatial differentiation of high and low income groups’ out-of-home activities in Guangzhou,China

With China’s rapid urbanisation driving its growing economy, the enlarging socio-spatial inequalities in the cities have received wide attention. Rather than following the largely studied residential spaces, this paper focuses on socio-spatial differentiation based on the spaces of one’s out-of-home activities. Using data of 1006 individuals collected by door to door questionnaires, this paper sets up the spatial and temporal autocorrelation GT coefficient to examine the spatial heterogeneity characteristics of high- and low income groups’ out-of-home activities in a continuous spatiotemporal framework. The factors and different mechanisms influencing the clustering of the activities are discussed to better understand social diversity in post-reform urban China. The results suggest that there is obvious spatial and temporal variation in high- and low income groups’ out-of-home activities, indicating that differing social spaces are not just limited to the macro-static residence-based living space, but also exist in the individual’s daily-activities space. Both high- and low income people have drastically different activity spaces and they may not interact much with each other. This is socially very significant because it means that there is considerable social isolation or segregation for both groups. The results also show that within the same income group there exists a divisive cluster with different formation mechanisms, including the job–housing relationship, the correlation of activity opportunities with those surrounding residential areas and the individual’s ability to access activities (that is, space–time accessibility). Structural transition can also impact on activities choices of various social groups.     

The Geography of Opportunity and Unemployment: An Integrated Model of Residential Segregation and Spatial Mismatch

Abstract: This article combines the neighborhood effects and spatial mismatch frameworks into a single model explaining how geographic factors contribute to unemployment. Using National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979) data, I estimate a two‐step model that separately models the effects of segregation and spatial mismatch. The first model predicts educational attainment as a function of exposure to residential segregation as a youth. The second model predicts unemployment probability as an adult as a function of educational attainment and spatial mismatch. The empirical results show that segregation does have discernable effects on educational attainment for blacks, but not for whites. I also find that spatial mismatch affects unemployment probability for blacks, but such an effect is hardly present for whites. A partial equilibrium analysis using predictions from the models shows that large changes in either segregation levels or the central city/suburban distribution of the black population would yield only moderate decreases in unemployment probability for the black population overall. Yet despite small predicted effects, these results should be viewed with caution because the general equilibrium effects of a large scale movement of blacks and whites across metropolitan space are largely impossible to predict with current data.     

基于激进马克思主义的城市居住空间分异研究

随着我国社会主义市场经济的发展,住房分配制度的改革、住宅产业化步伐的推进等政策的推出,城市已经出现一些新的城市社会空间特征,城市居住空间分异的现象是其中之一,而且城市居住空间分异的特征也在逐渐演变。文章介绍了城市居住空间分异的演变历程,对其引发的社会问题进行了因果分析,并用激进马克思主义的社会空间统一体理论简要解释城市居住空间分异的特征和内涵,最后从规划的角度,提出了相应的规划对策。     

Decomposing the entropy index of racial diversity: in search of two types of variance

There are two types of variance generally associated with the phenomenon of racial residential segregation. One type involves differing racial compositions between spatial locations. The other is concerned with varying residential spatial distributions between ethnic groups. This paper presents a spatial analytical approach to identify and measure the two types of variance through a decomposition of an entropy index regarding racial diversity. A region’s racial diversity entropy is found to comprise three factors: (a) the overall spatial distribution of regional population; (b) the ratio between the number of ethnic groups and that of spatial areal units within the region, and (c) the differential between two types of variance aforementioned. For demonstrative purpose census data from Los Angeles County are studied using this approach. The results suggest the second type of variance to be the primary contributor to the increasing racial diversity in Los Angeles. Implications regarding affordable homeownership and inclusionary housing policies are discussed accordingly.     

AN EXPLANATION FOR RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION BY EDUCATION: Warsaw

ABSTRACT: Existing indices do not permit causal models of residential segregation within a single city or region. An index of inequality (II) is presented as an index of residential segregation. This alternative index can be interpreted similarly to the established index of dissimilarity (D) and can be used as an interval-scaled variable within single city causal models. Data from the 1978 census of the Polish capital, Warsaw, were used as an example. Residential segregation by education in Warsaw can be explained in part by different housing conditions.     

上海人口空间变迁的现象、原因及后果初探

依托人口普查和经济普查的数据平台,对2000—2010年上海市人口的居住和就业的空间变迁进行较为详实的呈现。研究发现,上海常住人口的居住空间变迁有2个特点：居住空间呈现圈层特征,其密度向外递减,且随着时间推移不断向外扩散;同时,不同年龄组人口在居住空间上呈现高度分化的态势。造成这种变迁现象的一个主要原因是劳动年龄的净迁入人口大量进入中心城周边地区。人口普查和经济普查数据的叠加分析表现出这样一种现象：就业在中心城区的空间聚集度远高于居住,而向中心城周边地区的扩散速度则远低于居住,其后果是职住分离状况的加剧。在上海市应对未来人口规模的持续增长的情境下,该研究可提供一个基于城市功能与空间结构调整的视角。     

Housing policy and the ethnic mix in Helsinki,Finland: perceptions of city officials and Somali immigrants

Helsinki provides an interesting case for the comparison of European mixing policies, as it has a relatively short history as a city of immigration. In contrast to prevailing desegregation policies of many other European countries, mixing policies in Helsinki are more of a preventive nature. In this article, we aim to examine how these policies are constructed and what kinds of reasons and explanations are given for the official policy goals and their implementation. Interviews with Somali immigrants are used as empirical evidence to confront policy assumptions and to get more insight into the factors causing ethnic residential segregation in Helsinki. The study shows that the local policies have been largely influenced by international debates on ethnic segregation, and therefore they have lacked an adequate understanding of the causes and effects of segregation in the local context. While the policy goals of ethnic mixing have been rather precise, tools for implementation have also been lacking. The case of Somalis illustrates that processes of residential segregation are more complex and dynamic than what is pictured in policy documents.     

Socio-spatial restructuring in Shanghai: Sorting out where you live by affordability and social status

This paper investigates the dramatic shift in Shanghai’s socio-spatial landscapes in the postreform China. Supported by the recent population census, one percent sample survey, and other socioeconomic statistics, this paper posits that a socioeconomically segregated metropolis has emerged in Shanghai: It is an individual’s social status and the affordability of certain areas that determines where one can live. As such, a highly segregated socio-spatial structure has emerged in Shanghai driven not only by global forces, but also by developers and the state, as well as the associated institutional change. The findings of this paper calls for the Shanghai municipal government to review its property-led redevelopment approach, and regulate its policies for suburban industrialization and central city gentrification. This aims to diminish the social damage inherent in an increasingly segregated city.     

White flight in Los Angeles county, 1960–1990: a model of fuzzy tipping

Schelling’s (J Math Sociol 1:143–186, 1971) tipping model is a classic model of racial residential segregation. In this paper, the Schelling original is translated into a fuzzy set version and tested against demographic census data in Los Angeles county from 1960 to 1990. Results of nonlinear least squares regressions indicate that the tipping point has shifted from around 0.36 between 1960 and 1970 to 0.78 between 1980 and 1990. Regression results also suggest a constantly decreasing extent of White flight in the census tract level. These findings confirm the existence of the fuzzy tipping mechanism. They also reflect steady progression toward racially integrated urban residential pattern in Los Angles county from 1960 to 1990.     

Fiscal policy,taxation incentives and inner‐city housing development

This paper considers the risk and uncertainty attached to inner‐city environments and analyses the use of taxation incentives as a policy instrument in generating demand‐led residential development in such localities. Initially an international perspective is outlined; however, particular attention is focused on Dublin, Ireland, where taxation breaks specifically orientated at both owner and occupiers and investors have been a prime influence in stimulating private sector residential development on a major scale within the central core of the city. The case is presented for the imaginative use of tax incentives in achieving effective urban regeneration. Whilst it is recognised that housing policy and mechanisms cannot simply be replicated from one situation to another, there is need for policy‐makers, especially in Britain, to consider more innovative approaches to inner city housing renewal by integrating macro‐economic, fiscal and housing policy objectives.     

Can the internet reshape the national city size distribution? Cross-country evidence

This paper examines the effect of the internet on city size distribution at a global level based on city identification in nearly 100 countries. The results show that the internet first promotes the decentralization of the national city size distribution and then promotes the concentration with an increase in the internet penetration rate. These results differ from those found in the existing literature and help deepen the understanding of the internet's impact on city size distribution by providing new evidence with more reliable data and unified city definitions. The findings also have important policy implications for predicting population distribution and planning human habitations at the national level.     

北京经济技术开发区对北京郊区化的影响研究

对我国郊区化的已有研究基本上都局限在对人口和工业的离心扩散进行总体分析,而在城市各个功能区对郊区化的影响方面尚未涉足.利用实际调查和深度访谈的资料,分析了北京经济技术开发区对北京郊区化的影响内容和影响机理.研究结果表明:经济技术开发区由于位于远郊的区位条件和良好的产业发展前景、良好的居住环境等城市一般郊区所不具有的条件,已经成为我国城市郊区化的重要载体,吸引了区位竞争力较强的郊区化企业和居民,促进了城市的远域郊区化和郊区化的空间分异.因此,在郊区化背景下,应将经济技术开发区的发展纳入到城市总体规划中,促进其与城市的整合发展.同时还应充分关注和研究我国郊区化的空间分异现象.     

The Egalitarian city: The restructuring of Amsterdam

Since the mid‐1970s, urban policy makers have responded to the pressures of fiscal crisis and unemployment by reducing expenditures and subsidizing business for the purpose of stimulating economic growth. The behaviour of urban governments largely corresponded with the argument of Paul Peterson that cities were forced to pursue economic growth at the expense of redistribution. Nevertheless, the response to economic forces, while generally in a market‐oriented direction, was not uniform within western cities. In particular, the Amsterdam municipality remains notable for its egalitarian policies when compared with London or New York. Housing policy has been a major instrument in maintaining the quality of life for the city's lower‐income population. Because subsidized housing units, as well as recipients of individual housing benefits, are scattered throughout the city, housing policy has sharply restricted spatial inequality of households by income. Moreover, the very large public subsidy involved in housing construction, by keeping rent levels low and thereby raising disposable income, has contributed substantially to popular welfare, mitigating class differentiation and thereby weakening resistance to residential integration of different income groups. This paper examines policies for physical and economic development in Amsterdam and their effect on social and spatial inequality. The conclusion briefly compares Amsterdam's trajectory with that of London and New York, then finally attempts to explain the continuing differences.     

Bringing proximate neighbours into the study of US residential segregation

The race and ethnicity of neighbours are thought to be critical in shaping household mobility underlying residential segregation. However, studies on this topic have used data at the census-tract level of analysis rather than at the proximate-neighbour level. Using a non-publicly available version of the neighbour-cluster sample within the American Housing Survey, this study incorporates data on the race, ethnicity and socioeconomic characteristics of the proximate neighbours of White, Black and Latino households and examines their impact on household residential satisfaction, out- and in-mobility. Results indicate that proximate-neighbour race and ethnicity matter in influencing endpoints of the mobility process and do not necessarily parallel those at the census-tract level. Implications of these findings are discussed as they relate to the study of residential segregation.