Hot Deformation Characteristics and Dynamic Recrystallization Mechanisms of a Newly Developed Austenitic Heat-Resistant Alloy

The hot deformation characteristics, microstructure evolution, and dynamic recrystallization (DRX) mechanism of the newly developed austenitic heat-resistant steel Fe–18Cr–10Ni–0.3Nb–2.5Cu were systematically investigated by thermal compression tests combined with microstructure characterizations. The activation energy (Q) map, Zener–Hollomon parameter (Z) map, and processing map were plotted according to the stress–strain curves to reveal the inherent connection between the three maps and the hot deformation characteristics of this alloy. The high η region in the processing map does not precisely correspond to the region where DRX developed. Nevertheless, the flow instability map accurately predicts the microstructure. The variation pattern of Z corresponded more closely to the hot deformation microstructure evolution than did the variation pattern of Q. The degree of DRX increases with decreasing Z. The optimal process parameters are 1000 °C/0.01 s⁻¹/0.8 and 1100 °C/10 s⁻¹/0.8 (temperature/strain rate/strain), and they result in complete DRX and a narrow range of Z values. The DRX mechanism at high strain rate is characterized by the combined enhancement of discontinuous DRX (DDRX), continuous DRX (CDRX), and twin-DRX (TDRX). The dominance of the particle-stimulated nucleation (PSN) mechanism at intermediate strain rate results in the formation of incompletely recrystallized microstructures with approximate orientation. Sufficient time at low strain rate promotes the development of DDRX and CDRX.

     

Hot Deformation Behavior and Microstructure Evolution of 2Cr12Ni4Mo3VNbN Steel Used for Last-Stage Large Blades of Steam Turbine

The hot deformation behavior and microstructure evolution of a recently developed 2Cr12Ni4Mo3VNbN martensitic stainless steel are examined through hot compression tests conducted within the temperature range of 900–1200 °C and the strain rate range of 0.01–10 s⁻¹. The constitutive equation and processing maps corresponding to hot deformation are established. The activation energy for hot deformation of 2Cr12Ni4Mo3VNbN steel is determined to be ≈457491.77 J mol⁻¹. Simultaneously, the microstructure evolution during hot deformation is studied. Based on the processing maps and microstructure evolution analysis, it is concluded that the optimal windows for hot processing are within the temperature range of 1106–1150 °C and the strain rate range of 0.01–2.7 s⁻¹, as well as at 1200 °C within the strain rate range of 1–2.7 s⁻¹, exhibiting a power dissipation efficiency of 0.32. As the temperature increases and the strain rate decreases, the degree of dynamic recrystallization escalates.     

Modeling of Hot Deformation Behavior of 55SiMnMo Medium-Carbon Steel

The hot deformation behavior of 55SiMnMo steel was studied by hot isothermal compression tests at 950 — 1 100 °C and strain rates of 0.01 — 10s^?1 using a Gleeble 3500 thermal simulation machine. Experimental results show that the peak stress increases with decreasing deformation temperature and increasing strain rate. When the strain rate

= 0.01s^?1, or when

= 0.1s^?1 and the deformation temperature T ≥ 1000 °C, the dynamic recrystallization (DRX) of 55SiMnMo steel occurs. The hot flow stress constitutive equation, peak strain equation, as well as critical stress and strain for DRX initiation are obtained based on the experimental data. A comparison between the theoretical and experimental results verifies the reliability of the flow stress equation.     

Hot workability analysis and processing parameters optimisation for 20CrMnTiH steel by combining processing map with microstructure

The processing map of 20CrMnTiH steel is developed by using the dynamic material model according to the hot compression experiments, performed on a Gleeble-3500 thermal simulator at the temperature range of 850–1150°C and the strain rate of 0.01–1?s^?1. Hot workability characteristics of 20CrMnTiH steel are analysed based on the developed processing map. The safe deformation regions with higher power dissipation efficiency η exhibit the dynamic recrystallisation (DRX) mechanism and show fine and homogeneous microstructure. The unstable regions with negative instability coefficient ξ occur at both lower temperature with all strain rates and at high temperature with high strain rate at the strain of 0.2. The area of instability gradually decreases with the increasing strain and only appears at lower temperature and higher strain rate when the strain is above 0.2. The unstable regions indicate the flow localisation by microstructure analysis. Combining with the developed processing map with DRX behaviour, the optimal values of hot processing parameters for 20CrMnTiH steel are obtained to achieve good hot workability and small grains sizes at the process parameters ranged at 1036–1070°C/0.1–1?s^?1 and 918–985°C/0.01–0.014?s^?1.     

A Comparative Study on the Hot Working Behavior of Inconel 718 and ALLVAC 718 Plus

Hot compression tests were performed on Inconel 718 and ALLVAC 718 PLUS (718+) at temperatures and strain rates in ranges of 1223 K to 1373 K (950 °C to 1100 °C) and 0.001–1 s⁻¹, respectively. Discontinuous yield behavior was observed in the flow curves of both alloys. For both alloys, the drop in stress at the yield point (yield drop) was maximized at 0.01 to 1 s⁻¹. The alloy 718+ showed larger yield drop than 718 over the studied deformation conditions. The different yield behaviors were attributed to the various chemical compositions. The peak strain for both alloys increased in temperature range of 1223 K to 1273 K (950 to 1000 °C) and strain rates of 0.01 to 1 s⁻¹. This uncommon behavior was ascribed to the change in the mechanism of microstructural evolution from continuous to discontinuous dynamic recrystallization (DRX). The kinetics of DRX was described by the Avrami equation and the exponent was determined at different deformation conditions. The Avrami exponent increased in the middle values of Zener–Hollomon (Z) parameters, i.e., 29.3 < lnZ < 32.9 for 718 and 31.4 < lnZ < 34.5 for 718+. The unusual variation of the Avrami exponent was attributed to the change in the mechanism of DRX.

     

Dynamic Recrystallization of Ferrite with Particle-Stimulated Nucleation in a Low-Carbon Steel

Microstructure evolution of a low-carbon steel with the initial microstructure of ferrite matrix plus cementite particles during hot compression deformation was investigated at the strain rates of 0.001 s^?1, 0.01 s^?1, and 1 s^?1 at 973 K (700 °C) by means of field-emission scanning electron microscope, electron backscattered diffraction, and transmission electron microscopy. The results indicated that dynamic recrystallization (DRX) of ferrite took place at all of three strain rates, which can be classified as discontinuous DRX at 0.001 s^?1, 0.01 s^?1, and as continuous DRX at 1 s^?1. The formation of the nuclei of DRX of ferrite was mainly ascribed to the occurrence of particle-stimulated nucleation (PSN), accompanied with the lattice rotation and the formation of new high-angle boundaries. The occurrence of PSN was dependent on the development of a subgrain in the regions with high density of dislocations around cementite particles, without the need for the formation of the deformation zone.     

Optimization of Hot Workability in Superaustenitic Stainless Steel 654SMO

Hot compression tests were conducted on a Gleeble-3800 machine in a temperature range of 950 to 1200 ℃ and a strain rate range of 0. 001 to 10 s-1 in order to study the hot deformation behaviour of superaustenitic stainless steel 654SMO. The results show that peak stress increases with decreasing temperature and increasing strain rate, and the apparent activation energy of this alloy was determined to be about 494 kJ/mol. The constitutive equation which can be used to relate the peak stress to the absolute temperature and strain rate was obtained. The processing maps for hot working developed on the basis of flow stress data and the dynamic materials model were adopted to op- timize the hot workability. It is found that the features of the maps obtained in the strain range of 0.2 to 1.0 are fun- damentally similar, indicating that the strain does not have a substantial influence on processing map. The combina- tion of processing map and mierostructural observations indicates that the favorable hot deformation conditions are located in two domains of processing map. The first domain occurs in the temperature range of 980 to 1035 ℃ and strain rate range of 0. 001 to 0.01 s-1 with a peak efficiency of 55%. The second domain appears in the temperature range of 1 120 to 1 180 ℃ and strain rate range of 0.3 to 3 s-1 with peak efficiency of 35%. Compared to other stable domains, the specimens deformed in these two domains exhibit full dynamic recrystallization grains with finer and more uniform sizes. An instability domain occurs at temperatures below 1 100 ℃ and strain rate above 0.1 s-1 , and flow instability is manifested in the form of flow localization.     

Dynamic Recrystallization Behavior and Microstructure Evolution of Bridge Weathering Steel in Austenite Region

The austenite dynamic recrystallization (DRX) behavior and microstructure evolution of a bridge weathering steel was systematically investigated at a deformation temperature range of 800–1100°C and strain rate of 0.1–10 s^?1 by using hot compression test and optical microscopy. The stress exponent and hot deformation energy were obtained by regression method to determine thermal deformation constitutive equation. The curve of stress versus strain is used, combined with high order polynomial fitting, to accurately determine the critical value of DRX. The relationships between critical strain, critical stress, and Z parameter of the bridge weathering steel were obtained by regression method. Moreover, the influence factors of DRX kinetics of the bridge weathering steel were studied in the light of the experimental results. It is shown that the strain rate has a more significant effect on the rate of DRX than that of the deformation temperature, and there is almost 0.85 orders of magnitude increment in the rate of DRX as the strain rate increases an order of magnitude. The dynamically recrystallized grain size can be decreased with decreasing the deformation temperature and increasing the strain rate during the austenite deformation.     

Microstructural control in hot working of IN-718 superalloy using processing map

The hot-working characteristics of IN-718 are studied in the temperature range 900 °C to 1200 °C and strain rate range 0.001 to 100 s⁻¹ using hot compression tests. Processing maps for hot working are developed on the basis of the strain-rate sensitivity variations with temperature and strain rate and interpreted using a dynamic materials model. The map exhibits two domains of dynamic recrystallization (DRX): one occurring at 950 °C and 0.001 s⁻¹ with an efficiency of power dissipation of 37 pct and the other at 1200 °C and 0.1 s⁻¹ with an efficiency of 40 pct. Dynamic recrystallization in the former domain is nucleated by the δ(Ni₃Nb) precipitates and results in fine-grained microstructure. In the high-temperature DRX domain, carbides dissolve in the matrix and make interstitial carbon atoms available for increasing the rate of dislocation generation for DRX nucleation. It is recommended that IN-718 may be hot-forged initially at 1200 °C and 0.1 s⁻¹ and finish-forged at 950 °C and 0.001 s⁻¹ so that fine-grained structure may be achieved. The available forging practice validates these results from processing maps. At temperatures lower than 1000 °C and strain rates higher than 1 s⁻¹ the material exhibits adiabatic shear bands. Also, at temperatures higher than 1150°C and strain rates more than 1s⁻¹, IN-718 exhibits intercrystalline cracking. Both these regimes may be avoided in hotworking IN-718.     

Mechanical Behavior and Microstructural Change of a High Nitrogen CrMn Austenitic Stainless Steel during Hot Deformation

The hot deformation behavior of a high nitrogen CrMn austenitic stainless steel in the temperature range 1173 to 1473 K (900 to 1200 °C) and strain rate range 0.01 to 10 s⁻¹ was investigated using optical microscopy, stress-strain curve analysis, processing maps, etc. The results showed that the work hardening rate and flow stress decreased with increasing deformation temperature and decreasing strain rate in 18Mn18Cr0.5N steel. The dynamic recrystallization (DRX) grain size decreased with increasing Z value; however, deformation heating has an effect on the DRX grain size under high strain rate conditions. In the processing maps, flow instability was observed at higher strain rate regions (1 to 10 s⁻¹) and manifested as flow localization near the grain boundary. Early in the deformation, the flow instability region was at higher temperatures, and then the extent of this unstable region decreased with increasing strain and was restricted to lower temperatures. The hot deformation equation as well as the quantitative dependence of the critical stress for DRX and DRX grain size on Z value was obtained.     

Processing map for hot working of powder

The constitutive flow behavior of a metal matrix composite (MMC) with 2124 aluminum containing 20 vol pct silicon carbide particulates under hot-working conditions in the temperature range of 300 °C to 550 °C and strain-rate range of 0.001 to 1 s^-1 has been studied using hot compression testing. Processing maps depicting the variation of the efficiency of power dissipation given by [2m/(m + 1)] (wherem is the strain-rate sensitivity of flow stress) with temperature and strain rate have been established for the MMC as well as for the matrix material. The maps have been interpreted on the basis of the Dynamic Materials Model (DMM). [3] The MMC exhibited a domain of superplasticity in the temperature range of 450 °C to 550 °C and at strain rates less than 0.1 s^-1. At 500 °C and 1 s^-1 strain rate, the MMC undergoes dynamic recrystallization (DRX), resulting in a reconstitution of microstructure. In comparison with the map for the matrix material, the DRX domain occurred at a strain rate higher by three orders of magnitude. At temperatures lower than 400 °C, the MMC exhibited dynamic recovery, while at 550 °C and 1 s^-1, cracking occurred at the prior particle boundaries (representing surfaces of the initial powder particles). The optimum temperature and strain-rate combination for billet conditioning of the MMC is 500 °C and 1 s^-1, while secondary metalworking may be done in the super- plasticity domain. The MMC undergoes microstructural instability at temperatures lower than 400 °C and strain rates higher than 0.1 s^-1.     

Hot deformation characteristics of INCONEL alloy MA 754 and development of a processing map

The characteristics of hot deformation of INCONEL alloy MA 754 have been studied using processing maps obtained on the basis of flow stress data generated in compression in the temperature range 700 °C to 1150 °C and strain rate range 0.001 to 100 s^-1. The map exhibited three domains. (1) A domain of dynamic recovery occurs in the temperature range 800 °C to 1075 °C and strain rate range 0.02 to 2 s^-1, with a peak efficiency of 18 pct occurring at 950 °C and 0.1 s^-1. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) micrographs revealed stable subgrain structure in this domain with the subgrain size increasing exponentially with an increase in temperature. (2) A domain exhibiting grain boundary cracking occurs at temperatures lower than 800 °C and strain rates lower than 0.01 s^-1. (3) A domain exhibiting intense grain boundary cavitation occurs at temperatures higher than 1075 °C. The material did not exhibit a dynamic recrystallization (DRX) domain, unlike other superalloys. At strain rates higher than about 1 s^-1 the material exhibits flow instabilities manifesting as kinking of the elongated grains and adiabatic shear bands. The material may be safely worked in the domain of dynamic recovery but can only be statically recrystallized.     

Optimization of hot workability in stainless

The hot working behavior of 304L stainless steel is characterized using processing maps developed on the basis of the Dynamic Materials Model and hot compression data in the tem- perature range of 700 °C to 1200 °C and strain-rate range of 0.001 to 100 s♪-1. The material exhibits a dynamic recrystallization (DRX) domain in the temperature range of 1000 °C to 1200 °C and strain-rate range of 0.01 to 5 s_-1. Optimum hot workability occurs at 1150 °C and 0.1 s_-1, which corresponds to a peak efficiency of 33 pct in the DRX domain. Finer grain sizes are obtained at the lower end of the DRX domain (1000 °C and 0.1 s^-1). The material exhibits a dynamic recovery domain in the temperature range of 750 °C to 950 °C and at 0.001 s"1. Flow instabilities occur in the entire region above the dynamic recovery and recrystallization domains. Flow localization occurs in the regions of instability at temperatures lower than 1000 °C, and ferrite formation is responsible for the instability at higher temperatures.     

Hot Deformation Behavior of Beta Titanium Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al Alloy

Hot compression tests were conducted on Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al beta-Ti alloy in the temperature range of 1203 K to 1353 K (930 °C to 1080 °C) and at strain rates between 0.001 and 1 s^?1 The stress–strain curves showed pronounced yield point phenomena at high strain rates and low temperatures. The yield point elongation and flow stresses at the upper and lower yield points were related to the Zener–Hollomon parameter. It was found that dynamic recovery at low strain rates and dynamic recrystallization at high strain rates were the controlling mechanisms of microstructural evolution. The results also showed that strain rate had a stronger influence on the hot deformation behavior than temperature. The microstructural observations and constitutive analysis of flow stress data supported the change in the hot deformation behavior of the studied alloy varies with strain rate. For various applied strain rates, the activation energy for hot deformation was calculated in range of 199.5 to 361.7 kJ/mol. At low strain rates (0.001 and 0.01 s^?1), the value of activation energy was very close to the activation energy for the diffusion of V, Cr, and Al in beta titanium. The higher value of activation energy for deformation at high strain rates (0.1 and 1 s^?1) was attributed to the accumulation of dislocations and the tendency to initiate dynamic recrystallization.     

Deformation Behaviour and Microstructural Evolution During Hot Compression of AISI 904L

The hot deformation behaviour and microstructural evolution of AISI 904L super‐austenitic steel has been investigated by means of hot compression tests. The tests were carried out on a Gleeble 1500D thermo‐mechanical simulator in the temperature range from 850 °C to 1150 °C and at strain rates range from 0.001 s^?1 to 5 s^?1. The microstructure evolution was examined by means of light optical microscopy (LOM). The results show that after an initial deformation hardening, softening mechanisms occur. The peak stress level decreases with increasing deformation temperature and decreasing strain rate, which can be represented by a Zener–Hollomon parameter in the hyperbolic‐sine equation with the activation energy for deformation of 463 kJ/mol. The steady state was achieved at maximum strain of 0.9 only at the lower strain rates (under 1 s^?1) and the higher temperatures (above 1100 °C). Microstructural analyses showed a gradual increase in the dynamically recrystallized area with an increase of the temperature and a decrease of the strain rate. The grain size did change, as expected, correlating to the deformation conditions.     

The Study of Hot Deformation Behavior of Mechanically Milled and Hot Extruded Al–BN Nanocomposite

Hot deformation behavior of mechanically milled and hot extruded Al–BN nanocomposite is investigated by hot compression test in the temperature range of 350–500 °C and strain rate of 0.001–1 s^?1. The plastic flow of the nanocomposite as a function of temperature and strain rate is described using a constitutive equation. Based on dynamic materials model, the processing map is developed at the strain of 0.7 representing stable and instable domains. The stable and instable domains in the processing map are verified by microstructural evaluation using transmission and scanning electron microscopes. The results show that the flow instability domains including micro voids and surface cracks have occurred in the range of: (1) T = 350–380 °C, \(\dot{\varepsilon }\) = 0.001–0.015 s^?1, (2) T = 370–430 °C, \(\dot{\varepsilon }\) = 0.1–1 s^?1, and (3) T = 460–500 °C, \(\dot{\varepsilon }\) = 0.001–0.03 s^?1. The safe and stable domains for hot deformation of nanocomposite have occurred in the range of: (1) T = 350–370 °C, \(\dot{\varepsilon }\) = 0.1–1 s^?1, (2) T = 390–450 °C, \(\dot{\varepsilon }\) = 0.003–0.05 s^?1, and (3) T = 440–500 °C, \(\dot{\varepsilon }\) = 0.1–1 s^?1. Finally, the investigation shows that the best processing parameters for this new nanocomposite are within the temperature range of 390–450 °C and strain rate range of 0.003–0.05 s^?1.     

Recovery and Recrystallization Behaviors of Ni–30 Mass Pct Fe Alloy During Uniaxial Cold and Hot Compression

The recovery and recrystallization behaviors of the high-temperature γ-phase of carbon steel during deformation strongly affect the mechanical properties of steel. However, it is difficult to evaluate such behaviors at a high temperature. This study proposes the deformation behavior of the high-temperature γ-phase of low-carbon steel based on the quantitative observation of dislocation density and vacancies in the Ni–30 mass pct Fe alloy. This alloy was used because its stacking fault energy (60 to 70 mJ m^-2) is similar to that of low-carbon steel. Uniaxial compression tests were conducted at a strain rate of 10⁻³ s⁻¹ and 1473 K (1200 °C) for dynamic recrystallization and at 293 K (20 °C) for work hardening. The compression process was interrupted at different strain values to systematically investigate microstructural changes. The changes in work hardening, recovery, and recrystallization behaviors were obtained from the true stress–true strain curves of the uniaxial compression tests. Further, the microstructure changes during cold and hot uniaxial compression were investigated from the viewpoint of lattice defects by X-ray diffraction, positron annihilation analysis, transmission electron microscopy, and electron backscatter diffraction to comprehend the work hardening, dynamic recovery (DRV), and dynamic recrystallization (DRX). This study helps understand the DRV, DRX, and work hardening behaviors in the γ-phase of the Ni–30 mass pct Fe alloy during cold and hot compression.

     

Hot Ductility and Compression Deformation Behavior of TRIP980 at Elevated Temperatures

The hot ductility tests of a kind of 980 MPa class Fe-0.31C (wt pct) TRIP steel (TRIP980) with the addition of Ti/V/Nb were conducted on a Gleeble-3500 thermomechanical simulator in the temperatures ranging from 873 K to 1573 K (600 °C to 1300 °C) at a constant strain rate of 0.001 s^?1. It is found that the hot ductility trough ranges from 873 K to 1123 K (600 °C to 850 °C). The recommended straightening temperatures are from 1173 K to 1523 K (900 °C to 1250 °C). The isothermal hot compression deformation behavior was also studied by means of Gleeble-3500 in the temperatures ranging from 1173 K to 1373 K (900 °C to 1100 °C) at strain rates ranging from 0.01 s^?1 to 10 s^?1. The results show that the peak stress decreases with the increasing temperature and the decreasing strain rate. The deformation activation energy of the test steel is 436.7 kJ/mol. The hot deformation equation of the steel has been established, and the processing maps have been developed on the basis of experimental data and the principle of dynamic materials model (DMM). By analyzing the processing maps of strains of 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9, it is found that dynamic recrystallization occurs in the peak power dissipation efficiency domain, which is the optimal area of hot working. Finally, the factors influencing hot ductility and thermal activation energy of the test steel were investigated by means of microscopic analysis. It indicates that the additional microalloying elements play important roles both in the loss of hot ductility and in the enormous increase of deformation activation energy for the TRIP980 steel.     

Flow Behavior and Hot Workability of Nb-15Si-22Ti-5Cr-3Al-2.5Hf Alloy

Constitutive models for flow behaviors of an arc-melted Nb-15Si-22Ti-5Cr-3Al-2.5Hf alloy at temperatures of 1350 °C to 1500 °C and strain rates of 0.001 to 0.1 s⁻¹ have been successfully established during work hardening and dynamic softening stages, respectively, and relatively small average absolute relative errors of the predicted flow stresses are reached (7.7 pct for the work hardening stage and 5.7 pct for the dynamic softening stage). The hot processing map has also been established successfully for this Nb-Si-based ultrahigh temperature alloy. The favorable conditions for hot working of this alloy have been determined as 1350 °C to 1380 °C/0.001 to 0.003 s⁻¹ and 1380 °C to 1440 °C/0.001 to 0.01 s⁻¹. The deformed microstructures under different conditions have been explored and the mechanisms for flow instability of this alloy have been revealed. Flow instability at relatively low temperatures and high strain rates (1350 °C and 1410 °C, 0.1 s⁻¹) is mainly derived from the cracking of Nb₅Si₃ and the debonding of Nbss/Nb₅Si₃ interfaces, while flow instability at higher temperatures (1500 °C) should primarily result from the development of cracks and holes within the Nbss phase because of excessive strain accumulation.