相控阵兰姆波全聚焦算法的不锈钢薄板分层缺陷检测

航空金属薄板在加工时由于夹杂产生的气孔会随着使用过程中的拉伸和挤压而形成一种闭合型的分层缺陷。针对此类缺陷的检测,提出一种相控阵全聚焦成像算法与兰姆波检测结合的方法。首先从原理上分析并确定激励兰姆波的模态、频率及楔块的角度,其次对3 mm厚度不锈钢板中不同规格、形状的分层缺陷进行试验。结果表明:本研究方法能够对分层缺陷的轮廓成像;兰姆波易受缺陷上端面反射影响,导致缺陷下端面成像出现拖尾图像,且缺陷上端的定位定量精度要高于缺陷下端面;上端面缺陷的定位误差均在4%以内。     

Detectability of corrosion damage with circumferential guided waves in reflection and transmission

There is an increasing interest in high frequency short range guided waves to screen or monitor for corrosion. This contrasts with long range guided waves (LRGWs) which screen pipes for large patches of corrosion and have been successfully used in corrosion management for the past twenty years. The fundamental setup described in this paper uses circumferential guided waves, which are excited at a single location on a pipe and travel around the pipe wall and are detected at the same location. The study uses a finite element model assisted method to evaluate the detection capability of two short range circumferential guided wave setups which use both the reflected and transmitted signals. The setups themselves consist of either an axial array of transducers, for monitoring, or a single transducer which axially scans a pipe. Both setups have an array or scan pitch between either adjacent transducers or measurements. The detection capability of the fundamental Lamb wave modes (A0 and S0) in both reflection and transmission have been compared, as well as a hybrid shear horizontal wave setup, which uses the SH0 mode in reflection and the SH1 mode in transmission. A sensitivity analysis was conducted using two separate methods to determine the probability of detection (POD) for either the reflection or transmission signals. Both methods determine a POD for a specific defect, noise level, and array or scan pitch. Probability images are produced which map the POD for a range of defect sizes. For the parameters investigated in this study, it was found that in transmission large diameter defects have a higher detectability, whereas deep, narrow diameter defects are more detectable in reflection. A generalised overview of the sensitivity of short range guided waves is presented by combining both the reflection and transmission PODs. The data fused sensitivity of the S0 and SH hybrid modes are given as 0.6% and 0.75% cross sectional area (CSA) respectively, allowing for the comparison with LRGWs. The A0 mode was excluded from the POD analysis because it was much less sensitive than the other two modes.     

Piezoelectric Wafer Active Sensors in Lamb Wave-Based Structural Health Monitoring

Recent advancements in sensors and information technologies have resulted in new methods for structural health monitoring (SHM) of the performance and deterioration of structures. The enabling element is the piezoelectric wafer active sensor (PWAS). This paper presents an introduction to PWAS transducers and their applications in Lamb wave-based SHM. We begin by reviewing the fundamentals of piezoelectric intelligent materials. Then, the mechanism of using PWAS transducers as Lamb wave transmitters and receivers is presented. PWAS interact with the host structure through the shear-lag model. Lamb wave mode tuning can be achieved by judicious combination of PWAS dimensions, frequency value, and Lamb mode characteristics. Finally, use of PWAS Lamb wave SHM for damage detection on plate-like aluminum structures is addressed. Examples of using PWAS phased array scanning, quantitative crack detection with array imaging, and quantitative corrosion detection are given.     

CFRP层板冲击损伤空耦超声Lamb波特征成像 ——基于时间反转损伤指数

为实现飞机碳纤维复合材料（Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics，CFRP）层板在役检测，采用同侧空气耦合超声兰姆波特征成像检测的方法对其缺陷进行检测。将非接触空气耦合超声传感器置于CFRP层板同侧，激发A0模态兰姆波，对其冲击损伤进行D扫描检测。引入时间反转损伤指数表征复合材料层板的冲击损伤。结合概率损伤算法，以该指数作为损伤重构成像的特征值，将不同扫描路径上的特征值数据进行融合，得到CFRP层板冲击损伤缺陷的兰姆波图像。结果表明，基于时间反转的兰姆波图像不仅能够直观地呈现损伤缺陷的位置和形状，而且能够通过避免基准信号选取和减少扫描步进次数显著提高检测效率。     

Enhancement of detecting defects in pipes with focusing techniques

Ultrasonic guided waves have been widely utilized for long range inspection of structures such as oil and petrochemical pipes. However, weldments, support, insulation, and attenuation make it difficult to examine pipe-like structures. In order to overcome such difficulties, it is desired to focus ultrasonic guided wave at the area under interrogation. In this paper, we discuss two focusing techniques: angular profile tuning and signal based focusing. The angular profile tuning approach relies on a theoretical prediction of pressure field of ultrasonic guided wave produced by an ultrasonic transducer mounted on the pipe. And, the signal based focusing is focusing ultrasonic guided waves using cross-correlation analysis. To compare the performance of these two techniques, non-axisymmetric guided waves are focused to abnormalities such as a through-wall hole and a circumferential notch, using an ultrasonic guided wave array system that has been specially fabricated for this purpose. The advantages and limitations of these two focusing techniques are addressed.     

基于几种超声压电晶片阵列的金属板缺陷成像

结合椭圆定位方法,分别采用了线型、十字型和时钟型超声压电晶片阵列对金属薄板中缺陷进行成像识别。根据Lamb波在薄板中的传播分析,选取激励信号及其参数,构建超声信号检测模型。依据椭圆轨迹原理进行成像,判断薄板中有无缺陷存在。通过压电陶瓷晶片加载脉冲激励信号,分别对三种情况进行数据处理并成像。结果证明十字型和时钟型阵列能有效地对缺陷成像,并避免了成像过程中的虚像。     

Effects of array transducer inconsistencies on total focusing method imaging performance

The total focusing method (TFM) is a post-processing imaging algorithm for ultrasonic array data in which the array is synthetically focused at every image pixel. In this paper, the performance of the TFM imaging algorithm is examined in the presence of inter-element variability in the array, coupling and instrumentation. The inter-element variability includes amplitude, phase and delay inconsistencies.First, typical experimentally observed inter-element variations are extracted by back-propagation of the pulse-echo signals reflected from the planar back wall of a defect-free sample. The effect of different degrees of variability in the amplitude, phase and time delay associated with each element is then investigated through simulation. The peak amplitude and a measure of the size of the point spread function are used to assess the quality of TFM images simulated for a 1 mm side-drilled hole. It is shown that the performance is most sensitive to variability of time-delay rather than amplitude or phase.     

Study of ultrasonic phased array inspection imaging technology for NDT

A research about the ultrasonic phased array imaging principle from A-scan signal to B-scan image for non-destructive testing （NDT） was conducted in this paper, the ultrasonic phased array inspection imaging system used in industrial field was developed and the experiment was performed on the steel testing block by the system with 64 elements, 5 MHz phased array transducer. Experimental results show that the flaws could be accurately detected and the flaws size could be estimated from the B-scan images, and the B-scan images could clearly show the location of the flaws, but the quality of B-scan images needs to be enhanced by digital signal processing and controlling dynamic focusing for improving the image resolution.     

改进的希尔伯特-黄变换(HHT)在多模式Lamb波检测中的应用

Lamb波的主要特点在于它的多模式和频散,在任一给定的激发频率下,至少存在两种Lamb波模式。各模式的频散特性使Lamb波检测变得非常复杂,所以,Lamb波检测的关键在于缺陷信号特征参数的提取和精确的信号解释。首先采用HHT直接对多模式Lamb波检测信号进行了分析,通过分析,得出了直接对多模式Lamb波信号进行EMD分解来得到信号的瞬时频率和瞬时幅值的方法是不适合的结论。采用改进后的HHT方法进行分析,有效消除了噪声干扰和各模式Lamb波的相互干扰,得到的信号时频集聚性较好,有利于特征参数的提取和进一步分析。针对不同大小和深度的孔型人工缺陷的检测试验,分别提取了信号瞬时幅值的峰值和瞬时频率的均值作为检测信号的特征参数进行线性回归分析,发现采用瞬时幅值的峰值作为孔型缺陷检测的特征参数比采用瞬时频率的均值这一参数要好。同时提出可采用瞬时幅值的峰值回归直线的斜率K来标定特征参数对缺陷孔径变化的敏感性,从而可对未知缺陷的大小进行预判。     

Nonlinear Lamb wave based DORT method for detection of fatigue cracks

This research reports a selective detecting and focusing approach for fatigue cracks through use of decomposition of the time reversal operator (DORT) in combination with nonlinear Lamb waves. In the proposed approach, the time reversal operator (TRO) is only decomposed at the second-harmonic frequency, which has been widely utilized in recent years to evaluate micro-damage, rather than the fundamental frequency in the traditional DORT method. Further, an imaging algorithm based on the total focus method is introduced to locate nonlinear scatterers. The proposed approach is experimentally investigated to locate two fatigue cracks with different fatigue cycles in an aluminum plate with a set of surface bounded piezoelectric (PZT) transducers. The results show that the significant eigenvalues are related to the fatigue cycles of fatigue cracks when the TRO is decomposed at the second-harmonic frequency, and the number of significant eigenvalues is exactly equal to the number of fatigue cracks. The two fatigue cracks are selectively located accurately and are also distinguished from linear scatterer by use of the proposed method.     

Longitudinal mode magnetostrictive patch transducer array employing a multi-splitting meander coil for pipe inspection

Recently, a magnetostrictive patch transducer (MPT) by means of the highly magnetostrictive (such as nickel or iron–cobalt alloy) patch attached on the specimen has been applied in nondestructive ultrasonic testing in waveguides. In the study, we proposed a new MPTs array employing a multi-splitting meander coil (MSMC) for generating and receiving longitudinal guided waves in pipes. In the suggested configuration, the directions of the static magnetic field produced by the permanent magnets and the dynamic magnetic field produced by the MSMC are in the axial direction of the pipe. Two finite element models were established to simulate the distribution of the static and dynamic magnetic fields in the patch, respectively. The proposed MSMC was made of flexible printed circuit (FPC), so it could be easily installed on pipe surface. The performance of the proposed MPTs array was experimentally studied. Firstly, it was experimentally verified that the axisymmetric longitudinal guided wave mode, L(0,2), could be effectively generated and received in pipes with the developed MSMC-MPTs array. Secondly, the frequency response characteristics of the developed MSMC-MPTs array were related to D (the distance between adjacent belts of the MSMC). Thirdly, we demonstrated the ability of the developed MSMC-MPTs array for the identification and location of a crack defect in pipes. Finally, we compared the performances of the MSMC-MPTs array and conventional meander coil-MPTs and proved that the signals of the longitudinal guided wave mode could be enhanced by using the developed MSMC-MPTs array.     

声波散射在焊接板结构超声导波合成孔径阵列成像中的作用

为揭示声波散射在焊接板结构超声导波合成孔径阵列成像中的作用机制,将散射回波矩阵和散射渡越时间矩阵用于分析描述超声水平剪切（shear horizontal,SH）导波声波散射,探讨了焊缝散射和边界散射在导波成像中的作用关系.结果表明,散射矩阵是揭示声波散射在超声导波阵列成像作用机制的有效工具,散射回波矩阵与散射渡越时间矩阵具有相同的散射矩阵因子,导波图像出现与散射矩阵因子成倍数关系的“条带”伪像,图像椭圆簇轨迹特征复杂化,图像背景噪声增强,图像信噪比减小.研究工作可为深入开展焊接板结构超声导波非直线阵列成像算法研究提供基础.     

台阶型厚度变化板中导波的研究

针对单一模式导波入射的情况，利用混合边界元模型计算台阶型散射区域的反射系数和透射系数与各种入射模式、入射频率以及台阶高度变化的关系，研究在单一模式导波入射时导波与散射体的相互作用。研究结果可用来提高无损检测工程中的检测灵敏度与能量的穿透能力，尤其是在那些发生了台阶状厚度变化波导中的情形。     

Weld defect detection using PPM EMAT generated shear horizontal ultrasound

Austenitic welds are inspected using PPM EMAT generated shear horizontal (SH) waves. Results are compared to measurements taken using a 1D piezoelectric phased array using the total focusing method (TFM). For the first time there is clear experimental evidence of the SH wave method demonstrating higher sensitivity to defect detection. SH waves suffer less beam steering in a weld than either compression or SV waves, which can miss defects due to weld microstructure anisotropy and attenuation. All defects were identified from every side of the weld/plate using the SH waves, but this was not possible using the piezoelectric transducer.     

Time reversal and microwave techniques for solving inverse problem in Non-Destructive Evaluation

Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) methods are used to inspect materials without damaging their usefulness. The key problem in NDE is the inverse problem which involves reconstructing materials’ physical profiles, like inner discontinuity etc., using information in the measured NDE signal. Inverse problem solutions in NDE can be classified as model-based and system-based approach. In model-based approach, an accurate forward model is used in an iterative framework. This approach provides a resultant materials' physical profile that minimizes the error between the measured signal and a simulated signal. However, this approach requires repeated calculations of a numerical model in each iteration, making it computationally demanding. This paper presents a model-based method that also provides a direct approach to inversion using principles of time reversal. Time reversal focusing is based on the fact that when a wave solution is reversed in time and back-propagated the wave comes to focus at the source. Using a computational model, this paper applies principles of time reversal to microwave NDE data to solve the inverse problem of defect detection in dielectric materials. A two-dimensional finite difference time domain (FDTD) model, for simulating the propagation of forward and time reversed wave fields, is developed. A dielectric sample with artificial defects, illuminated by a Gaussian modulated pulse, is used in the simulations. The microwave measurements are recorded, time reversed and propagated using the FDTD model to highlight the scatterer/defect. Maxima in the energy image indicate locations of defects. Simulation results demonstrate the feasibility of the technique to detect defects in dielectric materials. The FDTD model is validated using experimental data.     

多通道动态光弹成像系统的研制

为了研究多阵元超声聚焦声波在固体中的传播规律,研制了多通道动态光弹成像系统。该系统通过对超声阵列换能器中各阵元进行相位延时控制,获得了灵活可控的合成波束,能在固体中激励出焦点可控的聚焦声波,并可以模拟相控阵技术的声束扫查过程。通过采用动态光弹技术,可以观察超声聚焦声波在固体中的传播行为。该系统实现了多阵元超声聚焦声场的可视化,能够为利用超声聚焦声波检测缺陷的理论提供可视化的实验依据,对超声无损检测具有重要的指导意义。     

A probabilistic approach for the optimisation of ultrasonic array inspection techniques

Ultrasonic arrays are now used routinely for the inspection of engineering structures in order to maintain their integrity and assess their performance. Such inspections are usually optimised manually using empirical measurements and parametric studies which are laborious, time-consuming, and may not result in an optimal approach. In this paper, a general framework for the optimisation of ultrasonic array inspection techniques in NDE is presented. Defect detection rate is set as the main inspection objective and used to assess the performance of the optimisation framework. Statistical modelling of the inspection is used to form the optimisation problem and incorporate inspection uncertainty such as crack type and location, material properties and geometry, etc. A genetic algorithm is used to solve the global optimisation problem. As a demonstration, the optimisation framework is used with two objective functions based on array signal amplitude and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The optimal use of plane B-scan and total focusing method imaging algorithms is also investigated. The performance of the optimisation scheme is explored in simulation and then validated experimentally. It has been found that, for the inspection scenarios considered, TFM provides better detectability in a statistical sense than plane B-scan imaging in scenarios where uncertainty in the inspection is expected.     

基于全聚焦成像技术的焊缝近表面平面类缺陷检测

全聚焦成像技术（TFM，total focusing method）利用虚拟聚焦算法，将采集到的每一组收发信号聚焦于成像区域的每一单元格上（虚拟聚焦点）并最终成像. Half-Skip TFM（HSTFM）是在全聚焦成像技术（TFM）的基础上发展起来的一种超声相控阵后处理成像技术. 文中分别采用TFM，HSTFM这两种算法对位于焊缝试件近下表面的典型平面类缺陷（垂直于试件表面扩展）进行了成像检测. 结果表明，TFM的成像仅观察到平面类缺陷上尖端的存在；而在HSTFM的成像中，平面类缺陷成像完整且清晰可见. 同时，试验中根据HSTFM的成像结果，测量出了缺陷的尺寸与定位信息，并具有较小的测量误差.     

Ultrasonic imaging of concrete using scattered elastic wave modes

Two different techniques for ultrasonic imaging of concrete are presented, namely a weighted sum technique and a statistical technique. The techniques utilize both the scattered elastic compressional and the mode converted shear wave fields. Since the conventional imaging techniques utilize either the compressional or the shear wave mode to generate the subsurface image, information contained in the scattered ultrasonic field is partially utilized. The proposed techniques intend to use more information contained in the scattered field leading to an improvement in the final image. Synthetic full matrix data is generated using the finite difference in time domain scheme for simulation of elastic wave propagation in concrete with embedded rebars and aggregates. The proposed imaging techniques are then used to generate the subsurface image of the medium. Experiments were also performed to generate full matrix data on two concrete slabs with different geometry, sizes and distribution of rebars. The applicability of the proposed imaging techniques is demonstrated on the experimentally acquired data. The images when compared to the ones generated by the conventional single mode approach, show improvement in resolution and distinction between the embedded features, e.g. closely spaced rebars. It is also observed that the weighted sum technique performs slightly better in comparison to the statistical technique with respect to suppression of background noise.     

基于等声程聚焦算法的超声相控阵检测技术

超声相控阵技术通过对超声阵列换能器各阵元进行相位控制,能获得灵活可控的合成波束,进行动态聚焦、成像检测,能够提高检测灵敏度、分辨力和信噪比。在研究超声相控阵换能器声场的偏转和聚焦特性基础上,基于ASTM推荐试块与试验标准E2491—06,设计了等声程聚焦模型,并给出了扇形偏转非聚焦以及扇形偏转等声程聚焦的检测成像结果。试验结果表明,等声程聚焦算法有效地检出了材料中的缺陷,具有很好的分辨率和信噪比,能够比较真实地反映材料内部缺陷的相对位置和大小。