Full surface inspection methods regarding reinforcement corrosion of concrete structures

For reinforced concrete structures a localisation of all significant critical areas can only be done by a full surface inspection. The economic advantages are obvious: uncritical areas have not to be repaired expensively 1 . The first step of the assessment should always be a visual inspection 2 . The range of deterioration causes can be limited and the degree of deterioration may be estimated roughly. The inspection program can be adjusted to the requirements. By means of a full surface potential mapping areas with a high risk for chloride induced reinforcement corrosion can be localised, although no deteriorations are visually detectable at the concrete surface. In combination with concrete cover depth and resistivity measurements areas with corrosion promoting exposure conditions can be localised even if the reinforcement is not yet depassivated. The following publication gives an overview about the essential full surface investigation methods to localise critical areas regarding corrosion of steel in concrete. The selection of methods is based on the inspection procedure given in 2 .     

Concrete cover cracking owing to reinforcement corrosion – theoretical considerations and practical experience

Reinforcement corrosion might lead to cracking and spalling of the concrete cover owing to the volume expansion associated with the deposition of some of the possible corrosion products. This is not only aesthetically unpleasing, it might also accelerate deterioration processes or become a safety issue for passing traffic. The present paper discusses first the mechanisms of carbonation‐ and chloride‐induced reinforcement corrosion and considers the chemistry of aqueous iron in order to identify the type of corrosion products as well as their location of formation. Furthermore, practical examples are summarised in order to compare the documented behaviour of a number of real structures with the theoretical considerations made. It is shown that for the case of purely chloride‐induced (pitting) corrosion, precipitation of corrosion products is strongly delayed or may even not occur. Implications are discussed with respect to time‐to‐corrosion prediction models and visual inspection of reinforced concrete structures. Both the theoretical considerations and the practical experience illustrate that relying on outwardly visible signs to detect internally on‐going corrosion must be done with caution if localised reinforcement corrosion cannot be excluded.     

Local detailed inspection methods regarding reinforcement corrosion of concrete structures

Full surface surveys which are likely to include e.g. a deterioration and potential mapping as well as a cover depth survey, should be the base to identify critical areas which are suspect to be suffering from reinforcement corrosion 1 . Localised assessment in these areas should give further information about the type and extent of deterioration. It should include the determination of the chloride profile beyond the cover depth, the depth of carbonation and a direct visual assessment of the steel reinforcement by breaking away the cover concrete at selected locations. Further valuable information may be collected by determining the water content of the concrete or performing corrosion rate measurements. Within this publication the essential methods for local detailed inspections are discussed regarding the application and interpretation of the results. An overview of the survey procedure is given in ref. 2 .     

A field study of critical chloride content in reinforced concrete with blended binder

This paper presents the results from the investigation of chloride‐induced reinforcement corrosion in concrete slabs after over 13 years exposure in the marine environment. In the beginning of 1990s over 40 reinforced concrete slabs with different types of binder and water/binder ratios were exposed in a marine environment at Swedish west coast. In this study a new rapid technique was used for non‐destructive measurement of corrosion. Based on the results from the non‐destructive measurement, the actual corrosion of steel bars in five concrete slabs was visually examined and the chloride profiles in the penetrating direction as well as at the cover level were measured. The results show that the visible corrosion normally occurred about 10–20 cm under the seawater level, where the oxygen may be sufficiently available for initiating the corrosion. It is also found that chloride may easily penetrate through a poor interface between concrete and mortar spacer and initiate an early corrosion. As a conclusion, although the chloride level 1% by mass of binder may not be the same as the conventionally defined threshold value, it can be taken as the critical level for significant on‐going corrosion that is visible by destructive visual examination, despite types of binder.     

Modellversuche zur Spannungskorrosion hochfester Spannstähle in nicht karbonatisiertem Beton

Model experiments on stress corrosion cracking of high strength steels in prestressed non-carbonated concrete The author deals with the mechanisms of stress corrosion cracking of stressing steels in alcaline media (pH 12.6) containing ions which promote stress corrosion cracking. The tests have revealed that this ion effect increases as the stability of their adsorptive bonding to iron atoms is increased. Sulfides can give rise to stress corrosion rupture in the anodic range when the concrete electrolyte becomes saturated by CaS. In the presence of chlorides stress corrosion cracking must be taken into account when chloride concentrations exceed 350 mg/l. Consequently, adequate protection is feasible by limiting to values not exceeding 300 mg/l the chloride content of the water used for concrete preparation. In the case of nitrates there is no danger of stress corrosion cracking. However, at nitrate concentrations exceeding 0.1 M/l the passivation layer is destroyed and then uniform corrosion sets in, so that subsequent rupture because of reduced load bearing cross sections may occur.     

Corrosion of aluminium alloy A6061-T6 members embedded in alkaline materials

Owing to the corrosive conditions in coastal areas, aluminium alloy railings and similar structures are normally used on infrastructure works such as bridges and roads located in such areas because aluminium alloys are inherently corrosion resistant. However, to achieve rigid support, aluminium alloy members are often embedded in concrete. Consequently, the embedded parts undergo corrosion caused by the alkaline content of the cement used in the concrete. This research was carried out to study the corrosion behaviour on both the embedded and unembedded sides of aluminium alloy A6061-T6 members embedded in the concrete and also to investigate the ability of a combined coating of anodic oxide and organic film to inhibit corrosion. Additionally, the influence of scratch damage on the performance of this coating material was evaluated.     

Theoretical considerations on the supposed linear relationship between concrete resistivity and corrosion rate of steel reinforcement

Traditionally, the assessment of service life of steel reinforced concrete structures has been focused on the prediction of the time required to achieve a transition from passive to active corrosion rather than to accurately estimate the subsequent corrosion rates. However, the propagation period, i.e. the time during which the reinforcing steel is actively corroding, may add significantly to the service life. Consequently, ignoring the propagation period may prove to be a conservative approach. On the other hand the prediction of the corrosion rate may result in a very complex task in view of the electrochemical nature of corrosion and the numerous parameters involved. In order to account for the various influences an essentially empirical model has been introduced in which the electrolytic resistivity of the concrete environment serves as the major parameter. This model will be discussed for carbonation‐induced corrosion based on the commonly accepted theory of aqueous corrosion. An alternative model for microcell corrosion is proposed which is based on the commonly accepted view that anodic and cathodic sites are microscopic and their locations change randomly with time. In line with this view electrolytic resistivity can be incorporated and thus may play a significant role in the kinetics of the corrosion process. For a wide range of corrosion current densities the relationship between corrosion current density, log(i_corr), and concrete resistance, log(R_con), can then be approximated by an almost ideal linear relationship. Assuming a fixed geometrical arrangement of anodic and cathodic sites on the steel surface, this linear relationship is also valid for concrete resistivity, ρ_con. However, from the theoretical treatment of the electrochemical processes underlying reinforcement corrosion it becomes evident that a linear relationship between corrosion current density and concrete resistivity does not necessarily imply that concrete resistance is dominating the overall corrosion cell resistance. In most cases a significant portion of the driving voltage of the corrosion cell will be consumed by the transfer of electrical charge involved in cathodic reactions, i.e. cathodic activation control will dominate.     

Epoxy‐coated bars as corrosion control in cracked reinforced concrete

One of the most common corrosion protection methods in reinforcing concrete bars is the application of fusion‐bonded epoxy coatings. Although considerable research has been carried out on the performance of epoxy‐coated bars (ECR), there are still many uncertainties about their performance in cracked concrete. In this experimental program, reinforcing steel bars with six types of epoxy coatings embedded in concrete slabs with a 0.4 mm wide preformed crack intersecting the reinforcing steel at right angles were tested. Results of corrosion potentials, corrosion current density, coating adhesion tests, chloride content, and visual examination after 68 months of exposure to a simulated marine environment are reported. Results revealed that under the studied conditions the ECR did not provide total protection of steel reinforcement in cracked concrete. Their use however, tended to reduce significantly the damage caused by the chloride‐induced corrosion when compared with the uncoated bars embedded in concrete with similar characteristics.     

Protection of Steel Bridges From Corrosion

Abstract

Atmospheric corrosion is only one of many causes of deterioration of structures, and protective measures applied to bridges are usually successful, in the sense that disasters resulting from corrosion are rare. Most bridge steelwork requires careful protection and regular inspection and maintenance, though in certain circumstances various grades of steel can be left uncoated. Depending on the intended life of a bridge, the procedure which in the long run is the most economic is usually one which employs a high standard of initial protection, so that unnecessarily frequent repainting is avoided. The circumstances in which steel piles can safely be used to support a bridge structure are briefly discussed. The protection of superstructure steelwork begins at the design stage, when much can be done to minimise subsequent corrosion troubles. Guidance is given on the choice of protective films, with or without a preliminary coating of non-ferrous metal. The standard of surface preparation needed for each type is given and its importance emphasised. The advantages of carrying out part of the protective work at the factory are explained, and special points to be considered at joints, bearings and road decks are described.

Maintenance painting is needed between 10 and 20 times during the life of a steel bridge, and calls for careful attention backed up by regular, skilled and painstaking inspection. A good system of testing is needed, and simple tests giving quick results have distinct advantages, especially if they can be carried out at the site where painting is being done. Some actual examples of protective measures adopted on a variety of modern steel bridges are described.     

桥梁混凝土防护用聚脲涂层耐硫酸盐腐蚀研究

桥梁混凝土在使用过程中会受到硫酸盐的侵蚀,涂层防护是混凝土抵抗硫酸盐侵蚀的有效方法。本文研究了无缺陷和有缺陷聚脲涂层混凝土在硫酸盐腐蚀环境下质量、抗折强度以及抗压强度随腐蚀龄期的变化规律,并采用扫描电镜（SEM）法研究其表观形貌的变化。研究结果显示：无缺陷涂层混凝土在80g／L的硫酸钠溶液中加速腐蚀后,其质量基本不变。有缺陷涂层混凝土质量前30d增加最多,增加了1．15％,之后变化不大;有缺陷涂层试块早期强度会出现比无缺陷涂层试块高的情况,120d时,有缺陷涂层试块的抗压强度比无缺陷涂层试块高5．63MPa,但150d时,无缺陷涂层试块的强度比有缺陷涂层试块高5．45MPa。说明有缺陷涂层试块因腐蚀介质进入试块内部与水化产物发生反应,引起强度和质量的短暂的增加,随着腐蚀的进一步加强,其质量变化不大,强度反而下降;SEM研究发现,腐蚀只在涂层表面局部区域产生,而涂层表面形貌和结构形态均未发生明显变化。以上研究表明,聚脲涂层能够很好的抑制硫酸盐对混凝土的腐蚀,但涂层缺陷会影响其抑制作用。     

增强目视检查在飞机维护中的应用

定期维护与检查是发现结构损伤并予以修理的基础。目视检查是飞机结构维护中最常用的检查方法之一。在分析研究国外参考文献和研究成果的基础上，重点介绍了美国和欧洲近来投入使用的两种增强目视检查方法的基本概念、原理、系统组成、技术特点及应用范围。增强目视检查对结构表面形貌改变非常敏感，包括表面裂纹、腐蚀凸起、冲击凹坑或其它异常情况，检查速度快、简单方便，可以避免飞机因为长时间停场造成的经济损失，对保障飞机结构的安全性具有重要作用。     

聚丙烯纤维与海工钢筋混凝土的耐久性

在海工钢筋混凝土中加入少量网状聚丙烯纤维能阻止混凝土的早期开裂，从而提高混凝土的抗渗性能，抑制液态介质腐蚀和钢筋锈蚀，提高混凝土结构的耐久性。     

钢筋混凝土构筑物电化学保护的新进展

综述了钢筋混凝土构筑物电化学保护的发展和现状,包括牺牲阳极系统和外加电流系统。内容涉及对不同类型、不同龄期构筑物的保护标准、保护参数选择、保护效果的评价以及检测、监测等诸方面。认为有必要加强电化学驱氯、电化学再碱化等新技术的研究;根据构筑物的不同使用环境,采用多种有效的、综合的保护措施。     

Seawater corrosion of 70Cu‐30Ni alloy of incomplete recrystallization of intermittent and full immersion

The corrosion of 70Cu‐30Ni alloy of incomplete recrystallization was investigated by electrochemical technique, intermittent and full immersion in natural seawater, SEM and AES. Exposed to seawater for a short time, 70Cu‐30Ni alloy formed uniform and compact corrosion product films, which were rich in nickel, oxygen and seawater species for intermittent immersion; while the alloy fully immersed displayed loose and thick films, which were of denickelification and intergranular corrosion occurred to the underlying substrate. It was found that some regular crystals situated at the intersection of boundaries or the outer layer of the film and the crystals are ascribed to the reduction of cuprous ions to compensate the deficiency of oxygen for the cathodic process. Intergranular corrosion was observed in the underlying substrate for intermittent immersion after a long‐term exposure. Intermittent immersion can, to some degree, slow down the corrosion but not prevent the alloy of incomplete recrystallization from intergranular corrosion. Consequently, the corrosion mechanism of 70Cu‐30Ni alloy is proposed to be determined by its microstructure, independent of exposure conditions.     

Damage analysis and cracking model of reinforced concrete structures with rebar corrosion

The damage of concrete cover in reinforced concrete structures induced by reinforcing steel corrosion is investigated in this study. The damage process of the concrete cover can be divided into two distinct stages: the non-cracking stage and the partial cracking stage. An analytical model based on damage mechanics and elastic mechanics is developed to predict the concrete cracking due to steel corrosion. Based on this model, the expansive pressure and the radial loss of steel bar are discussed. Parametric studies are carried out to examine the effects of the correlative factors on the expansive pressure and the steel loss.     

Models for the propagation phase of reinforcement corrosion – an overview

The deterioration of a concrete structure by reinforcement corrosion proceeds in two phases: the initiation stage and the propagation stage. The first stage describes the time to onset of corrosion due to carbonation of the concrete or chloride ingress. The second stage is the actual deterioration stage. Most methods for life time assessments refer only to the first stage, what is on the safe side with respect to design of structures, but also a model for the second stage can be of interest, e.g. if the remaining life time of an existing structure has to be estimated. This paper presents and discusses the state‐of‐the‐art of models for the propagation stage with regard to their different approaches.     

钢筋混凝土腐蚀与防护的技术发展动态

总结,分析并阐述了在腐蚀环境条件下,混凝土中钢筋腐蚀发生和发展的原因,腐蚀性组分从环境透过作为多相电解质的混凝土到达钢筋表面,破坏了钢筋的印态,是钢筋腐蚀的主要原因。     

Environmental influences on linear polarisation corrosion rate measurement in reinforced concrete

The linear polarisation resistance (LPR) method can be used to measure the active rate of corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete structures. However a single measurement may be sensitive to the ambient environmental conditions and thus may not be representative of the mean annual rate of corrosion. The LPR measurement may be dependent upon the temperature at the time of sampling and on any wetting/drying effects resulting from rainfall and wind or sunshine.Recent studies have examined the behaviour of a series of reinforced concrete specimens subject to chloride contamination or carbonation induced corrosion in a controlled laboratory environment. LPR measurements taken at frequent intervals have been related to a wet/dry cycle imposed upon the specimens to promote corrosion activity. In addition, similar studies have been carried out, of an in situ reinforced concrete specimen exposed to the ambient weather conditions. The study is only partly completed, but interim results show the variability of LPR measurements and the influences the environment may exert on single spot measurements.     

燃气轮机进气滤后隔网腐蚀原因分析和处理

介绍了某电厂3^#燃机的压气机因进气滤后不锈钢丝隔网散落造成压气机叶片损伤的情况和检修对策。通过对断裂钢丝进行宏观、显微及腐蚀产物的分析，确定钢丝断裂的主要原因为应力腐蚀开裂。     

丙烯酸系乳胶用于钢筋混凝土的防腐蚀研究

用电化学阻抗谱研究了丙烯酸系乳胶作为混凝土添加剂或钢筋表面涂层时对钢筋腐蚀行为的影响,加速腐蚀试验结果表明混凝土中添加乳胶后能够延缓钢筋表面钝化层的破坏,而对混凝土的渗透性能影响不大,乳胶涂层能够显著减小钢筋腐蚀速率,涂层的存在改变了钢筋表面的腐蚀状态,在此基础上提出了改善钢筋混凝土抗蚀能力的措施。