ASSISTED CRACK GROWTH IN MARAGING STEEL WELDS BY GASEOUS HYDROGEN

Abstract— The effects of environmental hydrogen content on fatigue crack growth rates (FCGRs) in T-250 maraging steel plates and laser welds were investigated. The influence of ageing treatments on fatigue characteristics of the alloy was also studied. Experimental results revealed that the accelerated FCGRs in the presence of hydrogen were always associated with changes in fracture modes that appear in compact-tension specimens. Even for overaged specimens with excellent resistance to gaseous hydrogen embrittlement, such an acceleration of crack growth in hydrogen could not be avoided. The crack path of underaged specimens in hydrogen was found mainly along prior austenite boundaries for steel plates and along coarse columnar boundaries for welds. In gaseous hydrogen, peak-aged welds exhibited intergranular and quasi-cleavage mixed fracture modes, compared to mainly quasi-clevage for similar aged steel plates. Hence, the enhancement of crack growth in hydrogen was more pronounced for the welds. Overaged welds showed higher FCGRs than the same aged steel plates only in hydrogen and for Δ K values greater than 20MPa√m.     

Effect of laser beam welding on fracture toughness of a Ti-6.5Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy sheet

Investigation of fracture toughness on Ti-6.5Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy thin sheet and its laser-welded joints has been carried out. In the test compact tension (CT) specimens and single specimen technology were used. In addition, hardness distribution and microstructure of the welded joints were examined. Fracture test indicates that brittle unstable fracture occurs after slow crack propagation for all the specimens, except that one heat affected zone (HAZ) specimen is brittle crack initiation. It is found that rolling directions have no obvious effect on fracture toughness of base metal. Moreover, fracture toughness of weld metal is obviously decreased in comparison with base metal whatever in as-welded condition or in stress relief condition. Post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) leads to fracture toughness of the welds further decreasing. Fractography observation shows that the fracture mode is predominantly dimpled in base metal. However, there exists intergranular fracture in the weld metal. Thus, the transition of fracture mode from both base metal and HAZ to weld metal may lead to dramatic decrease in fracture toughness. Microstructure examination reveals that the microstructure of weld metal consists of large grains with fine acicular structure. The formation of fine α acicular structure is due to rapid cooling during laser welding. After PWHT, the acicular structure is coarsened.     

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of TiAl-based Alloy

Two phases gamma titanium aluminide alloy,Ti-46.5Al-2.5V-1Cr.was investigated to characterizemicrostructures and to define the microstructure/mechanical property relationship.Many kinds ofmicrostructure of gamma and α_2 phases were obtained by heat treatments in the α+γ,α_2+γ and αfields.The effects of microstructure on tensile properties,fracture toughness and J-R resistancecurve at room temperature,were systematically studied.The experimental results showed that themicrostructure had a strong effect on mechanical properties,The duplex microstructure produced byheat treatment at 1250℃×4 h with controlled cooling resulted in the highest ductility of 4.8% tensileelongation,low fracture toughness and crack growth resistance.The fully lamellar microstructureproduced by heat treatment in the α field having large grain sizes resulted in the highest fracturetoughness but the lowest ductility.     

Studies on fusion zone fracture behaviour of electron beam welds of an α+β-titanium alloy

A study was undertaken to understand the fusion zone fracture behaviour of electron beam welded +-titanium alloy Ti-6.5 Al-3.3 Mo-1.8 Zr and 0.25 Si. The effect of base metal microstructure, the amount of heat input and post weld heat treatment cycle on the all-weld tensile properties and fracture behaviour was investigated in this work. In general, it was found that the tensile strength and ductility of +-base welds are higher than that of the -base welds and the difference was attributed to the presence of wider fusion zone grains of -base welds. The -base weld tensile specimens always exhibited an intergranular fracture mode irrespective of the amount of heat input. The single pass low heat input +-base welds failed by ductile transgranular fracture mode, while high heat input single pass welds failed by a mixed mode (intergranular plus faceted) fracture. In general high heat input welds showed low ductility mainly on account of the strain localization effects at the grain boundary alpha phase. Post-weld heat treatments of +-base welds resulted in the improvement of tensile ductility and were associated with transgranular fracture due to the absence of strain localization effects at the grain boundary alpha phase.     

Carbide Effects on Creep Crack Growth of Ni-Cr Austenitic Steels

By controlling the carbon content ofFe-15Cr-25Ni alloys,three types ofmicrostructures were obtained:single phaseaustenite (γ),γ+intergranular carbides,γ+intergranular carbides + intragranular carbides.Creep crack growth behaviour of the three alloyshas been compared at 973 K and 1123 K.Intergranular carbides show higher creep crackgrowth resistance than intragranular carbides.Cav-ities nucleate at the triple junctions of grain bound-aries for single phase alloy,but at intergranularcarbides for two-phase alloys.The precipitation ofintergranular carbide not only changes thenucleation mechanism of cavities,but also inhibitsthe growth and coalescence of cavities.The precipi-tation of intragranular carbide obstructs thenucleation and growth of cavities furthermore.     

纳米ZrO2与微米Al2O3复合陶瓷的断裂模式

研究了两种微米Al2O3与纳米ZrO2复合陶瓷的裂纹扩展过程与显微结构的关系.结果表明,Al2O3晶粒内部形成纳米级或亚微米级ZrO2颗粒,是复合陶瓷的断裂模式从沿晶断裂向穿晶断裂转化的主因.ZrO2含量较低有利于Al2O3晶界迁移包裹纳米ZrO2形成内晶结构;而ZrO2含量较高使主晶相长大受到抑止,不利于形成内晶结构,趋向于沿晶断裂.裂纹穿晶扩展需要的驱动力比沿晶断裂大,故裂纹扩展阻力曲线的上升趋势更加显著.裂纹穿晶扩展路径主要取决于内晶颗粒产生的弹性应力场的性质.     

The influence of stress intensity and microstructure on fatigue crack propagation in ferritic materials

New and published fatigue crack growth data for a wide range of steels have been categorized in terms of different growth mechanisms, namely striation formation, microcleavage, void coalescence and intergranular separation. General principles emerged concerning the influence of mean stress, specimen thickness, flow stress and toughness on rates of fatigue crack propagation through their effect on growth mechanism.

Crack propagation rates associated with striation formation were insensitive to changes in mean stress (except at very low stress intensities) and specimen thickness. Increase in flow stress resulted in a small decrease in growth rate, although the path of a crack through complex structures like welds was, nevertheless, strongly influenced by plastic relaxation. Crack propagation rates increased when deformation led to net-section yielding (general yielding) and the increase was related to specimen thickness and geometry. It has been shown that simple relationships between the rate of propagation and alternating stress intensity are adequate for describing fatigue crack growth by the striation mechanism.

Departures from exclusively striation formation to include micro-cleavage, void coalescence or intergranular separation were found to result in accelerated growth rates. Where growth occurred by combined striation formation and microcleavage, the increase in fatigue crack growth rate was dependent on the maximum tensile stress and hence on the mean stress and specimen thickness. Similarly, when fatigue involved the void coalescence mechanism the rate was increased by raising the mean stress. The role of microstructure and fracture toughness in promoting the different growth mechanisms is discussed. Modification of the simple growth law is necessary in order to describe the observed results.     

Fractography as well as fatigue and fracture of 25 wt% silicon carbide whisker reinforced alumina ceramic composite

Fatigue cracked and fast fractured regions in four-point bend specimens prepared from 25 wt% silicon carbide whisker reinforced alumina composite were examined by scanning electron microscopy. This composite was found to be susceptible to a fatigue crack growth phenomenon similar to that in the case of metallic materials, but with a higher crack growth exponent. In the fatigue region, the alumina matrix failed mainly in a transgranular mode and the whiskers mainly failed with a flat fracture surface but without their pullout. On the other hand, in the fast fracture region, the whiskers failed predominantly by pullout and the alumina matrix failed in a mixed mode with about half in transgranular and the other half in intergranular mode. Thus, to improve the fracture toughness of the material, the grain boundary strength of alumina and the matrix whisker interfacial bonding should be improved. To increase the resistance to fatigue, the fracture strength of the alumina grains should be improved by using finer α-alumina particles and the fatigue strength of the whisker have to be increased by improving the uniformity in distribution of β-SiC whiskers during hot pressing.     

Role of nonlinear fracture mechanics in assessing fracture and crack growth in welds

An experimental study was conducted to assess the structural performance of repair welds in an ex-service 1Cr-1Mo-0.25V steam turbine casing material. Material from two weld techniques, one involving a post-weld heat-treatment that produced undermatched welds and the other involving a temper bead welding technique that produced overmatched welds were tested. Both welding techniques were implemented in two base metal conditions giving rise to four different welds and two different base metal conditions. The tests conducted included tensile tests, creep tests, fracture toughness tests, fatigue crack growth tests, creep crack growth tests, and creep-fatigue crack growth tests on the base metal, weld metal and the weldment region.The yield strength of the weld metal in the undermatched condition was approximately 10% lower than the base metal, while the weld metal in the overmatched condition had a yield strength that was 30% higher than the base metal at 565 °C. The creep deformation rates in the undermatched welds were 60 times faster than the base metal at a stress of 207 MPa. In the overmatched welds, the creep rates at 207 MPa were about 2.8 times faster in one case and 2.8 times slower in the other.The crack path in fracture toughness specimens followed the interface between the transition layer and the weaker of the weld metal and the base metal. The J-resistance curves for the weldments at 565 °C showed significant variability among duplicate samples from the same welds. This scatter was caused by the variability in the location of the precrack with respect to the fusion line and the location of the low fracture toughness region in the weldment. This behavior was explained using a novel approach for characterizing the fracture of welds. The creep-fatigue crack growth rates at equivalent (C_t)_avg values in undermatched welds was higher than the crack growth rates in the overmatched weld samples. In all cases under creep-fatigue, the crack appeared to grow in the weaker of the base metal and the weld metal. Recommendations for future work are provided to enhance the theoretical underpinnings of the nonlinear fracture mechanics frame-work to rigorously address fracture and crack growth in welds.     

Microstructural stability and mechanisms of fatigue and creep crack growth in Ti–24Al–11Nb

Titanium intermetallics are being developed for long term applications at elevated temperatures, particularly those alloys based on the alloys Ti₃Al and TiAl. Typical approaches include the design of appropriate microstructures for room and elevated temperature fatigue and creep resistance. However, a little explored area is the stability of these microstructures at elevated temperature and its effect on fatigue crack growth. The present investigation documented the microstructural stability, fatigue crack behaviour, and stress rupture of Ti-24Al-11Nb, a Nb modified Ti₃Al alloy. A coarse two phase α₂+β Widmanstatten microstructure was found to exhibit the best resistance to fatigue crack growth. Microstructural stability and elemental segregation were studied as a function of exposure time for up to 500 h at 800°C using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Results indicate that the Widmanstatten microstructure is metastable and the β phase breaks up into particles. The absence of a continuous β phase surrounding the α₂ phase reduces the resistance of the microstructure to fatigue crack growth at room temperature. At elevated temperature the microstructure stability does not play a role in determining the fatigue resistance. A fine Widmanstatten microstructure has the best resistance to creep deformation. Stress rupture tests were conducted in vacuum and air at 649°C and 760°C. Two types of failure mechanisms were seen in stress rupture; these include transgranular and intergranular failure within prior β grains. When tested in air at 760°C a combination of transgranular and intergranular failure occurred. Specimens that exhibited a higher proportion of transgranular failure had longer lives. When tested in vacuum at 760°C the predominant failure mode was intergranular. At 760°C extensive microstructural changes like breakup and spherodization of the β phase occurred under stress while the rate of coarsening without any stress was much slower. At 649°C the specimens tested in vacuum consistently exhibited longer lives. The creep crack growth when tested in air at 649°C was always a brittle transgranular mode while the specimens tested in vacuum always failed by an intergranular mode. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Microstructure evolution and fracture behaviour for electron beam welding of Ti-6Al-4V

The effect of microstructural characteristics on fracture behaviour mechanism for electron beam welding of Ti-6Al-4V was investigated. The results indicated that the welded microstructure composed of coarse needle α + β phases presenting disordered and multidirectional short needle morphology to make fracture mechanism complex. The coarse grains in weld seam with microhardness 536 HV were easy to be fractured in the region where welding heat input was ≥ 68.8 kJ/m. There exists flat curves of Ti, Al and V, Fe concentration distribution fluctuation to cause microstructural amplitude-modulated decomposition to increase the joint ductility and cleavage strength. The uneven distribution of the partial micropores located at the interior of the specimen acting as crack initiation sites lead to non-linear branch propagating path. The α + β interlaced structure results in the fracture location near α/β interface. The existence of stacking fault structure caused pile-up of dislocation to produce micropores to be new fracture initiation sites.     

Microstructures and mechanical properties of an investment cast gamma titanium aluminide

Abstract

Investment castings have been produced in γ-TiAl of composition Ti–48Al–2Nb–2Mn (at.-%) using induction skull melting. The microstructures of the bars were studied in the as cast condition and after hipping and heat treatment. Heat treatment at 1200°C led to a near γ structure whereas treatment at 1350°C resulted in a nearly lamellar structure. However, a duplex structure was retained after treatment at 1300°C. Tensile, fracture toughness, and fatigue crack growth resistance tests have been carried out on specimens machined from different sized bars. The tensile properties increased with decreasing bar diameter but, conversely, both the fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth resistance improved as the bar diameter increased. It has been found that the fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth resistance in nearly lamellar structures were better than those in near γ structures, whereas duplex structures had intermediate properties. However, the tensile properties of duplex structures were better than both near γ and nearly α₂ /γ lamellar structures, with optimum values at 35 ± 5% α₂ /γ lamellae of ～400 MPa 0·2% proof strength, 470 MPa tensile strength, and 0·9% elongation.     

Comparative study of fatigue and fracture in friction stir and electron beam welds of 24 mm thick titanium alloy Ti‐6Al‐4 V

In this study, friction stir welding of Ti‐6Al‐4 V was demonstrated in 24 mm thickness material. The microstructure and mechanical properties, fatigue, fracture toughness and crack growth of these thick section friction stir welds were evaluated and compared with electron beam welds produced in the same thickness material. It was found that the friction stir welds possessed a relatively coarse lamellar alpha transformed beta microstructure because of slow cooling from above the transus temperature of the material. The electron beam welds had a fine acicular alpha structure as a result of rapid solidification. The friction stir welds possessed better ductility, fatigue life, fracture toughness and crack growth resistance than the base meal or electron beam welds. Thus, even though friction stir welding is a relatively new process, the performance benefits it offers for the fabrication of heavy gage primary structure make it a more attractive option than the more well‐established electron beam welding method.     

Fracture toughness and crack growth resistance of pressure vessel plate and weld metal steels

Compact tension specimens were used to measure the initiation fracture toughness and crack growth resistance of pressure vessel steel plates and submerged are weld metal. Plate test specimens were manufactured from four different casts of steel comprising: aluminium killed C-Mn-Mo-Cu and C-Mn steel and two silicon killed C-Mn steels. Weld metal test specimens were extracted from five weld joints of Unionmelt No. 2 weld metal. The welds were of double V butt geometry having either the C-Mn-Mo-Cu steel (three weld joints) or one particular silicon killed C-Mn steel (two weld joints) as parent plate. On the upper shelf, a multiple specimen test technique was used to obtain crack growth data which were analysed by simple linear regression to determine the crack growth resistance lines and to derive the initiation fracture toughness values for each test temperature. These regression lines were highly scattered with respect to temperature and it was very difficult to determine precisely the temperature dependence of the initiation fracture toughness and crack growth resistance. The data were re-analysed, using a multiple linear regression method, to obtain a relationship between the materials' crack growth resistance and toughness, and the principal independent variables (temperature, crack growth, weld joint code and strain ageing).     

混凝土断裂及亚临界扩展的细观机制

通过模型和三点弯曲断裂SEM试验,详细研究了混凝土断裂全过程及亚临界扩展的细观机理。结果表明:混凝土断裂是一个复杂的不规则过程,存在明显的亚临界扩展现象。混凝土亚临界扩展路径是曲折的,并非经典断裂力学假定的平直路径,混凝土亚临界扩展和临界失稳扩展呈现分形特征。用起裂断裂韧性iICK和分形等效断裂韧性feICK,来描述混凝土抵抗初裂和临界失稳扩展的能力。给出了考虑亚临界扩展弯折效应的混凝土亚临界扩展长度、混凝土起裂断裂韧性iICK和分形等效断裂韧性feICK,的计算表达式。计算表明:混凝土失稳断裂时的分形等效断裂韧性feICK ,与混凝土亚临界扩展的分维数D成正比。     

Numerical modelling of damage behaviour of laser-hybrid welds

The effect of laser-hybrid welds on deformation and failure behaviour of fracture mechanics specimens is investigated in order to provide quantitative prediction of damage tolerance and residual strength. The simulation of crack initiation and crack extension in hybrid welds is performed by applying GTN damage model. The identification of damage parameters requires combined numerical and experimental analyses. The tendency to crack path deviation during crack growth depends strongly on the constraint development at the interface between base and weld metal. In order to quantify the influence of local stress state on the crack path deviation, the initial crack location is varied. Finally, the results from fracture mechanics tests are compared to real component, beam-column-connection, with respect to fracture resistance.     

Cyclic crack growth and fracture resistance of Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn as influenced by recrystallization anneal and interstitial oxygen content

This study was undertaken to determine methods for metallurgical improvement of cyclic crack growth and fracture properties in Ti-6A1-6V-2Sn. Two heats of the alloy were studied: an + β processed material containing 0.165% interstitial oxygen and β-processed material containing 0.077% interstitial oxygen. All test specimens were given a mill anneal heat treatment, in addition some specimens from each heat were given a recrystallization anneal treatment Fatigue-crack growth rates were determined using compact tension specimens and fracture toughness was determined using 1 in. dynamic tear specimens for each material/heat treatment combination. The recrystallization anneal treatment resulted in significant improvements in the fracture resistance of both materials, despite metallographic evidence that die recrystallization-annealed β-processed material did not develop a fully recrystallized structure. Improvements in cyclic crack growth resistance resulting from the recrystallization anneal treatment, per se, were modest. However, the combined effects of recrystallizalion anneal plus a reduction B interstitial oxygen content significantly improved the cyclic crack growth properties of Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn.     

Characterization of 2-dimensional crack propagation behavior by simulation and analysis

Crack propagation behavior in 2-dimensional polycrystals is simulated and analyzed as a function of the fracture toughness of the grain boundary. The path of a crack impinging on a grain boundary is determined by the competition theory between intergranular and transgranular propagation. With decreasing boundary toughness, the tendency of intergranular propagation increases and the apparent fracture toughness of the polycrystal decreases. The results of the 2-dimensional analysis are compared with the simulation, and the advantages and limitations are discussed. The grain boundary toughness is evaluated by comparing the simulated crack paths with direct observations, resulting in a reasonable value for alumina ceramics. The fracture behavior is characterized in a macro-scale by the percentage of transgranular fracture and also in a micro-scale by the distribution of crack deflection angles.     

Stochastic analysis on crack path of polycrystalline ceramics based on the difference between the released energies in crack propagation

The crack path of polycrystalline ceramics has been theoretically analysed with a stochastic model based on the difference between the released energies in intergranular and transgranular crack propagation. Assuming that the path with the lowest released energy should be realized as the actual crack path, the expected values of the fraction of transgranular fracture on fracture surface and the fracture toughness of polycrystalline ceramics were formulated as functions of grain size and the critical energy release rates of grain and grain boundary. By comparison between the theory and the experimental results it was shown that the stochastic model proposed here expressed the change of the crack path and the fracture toughness of polycrystalline Al₂O₃, relative to grain size. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The relationship between fatigue crack behaviour and microstructure in 7178 aluminium alloy

Relationships between fatigue crack growth rates and crack path have been studied in under aged, peak aged and over aged 7178 aluminium alloy microstructures. The superior resistance to crack growth of over aged material is derived from the greater crack tip irregularity that the microstructure imposes. Conversely, the poor crack growth resistance of material aged to peak hardness is associated with relatively flat fracture surfaces. Changes in crack tip regularity while the crack is extending control the slope of the crack growth rate curve.