Earthbound Civil Engineering Experience for Space Applications

Since the dawn of civilization, the civil engineering profession has served mankind. Civil engineers have provided humanity with safe, reliable, and economical facilities and a livable environment. This paper seeks to outline the potential applications of various Earth‐based civil engineering fields for the engineering, construction, and operation of facilities in space stations in Earth orbit, bases on the Moon and Mars, and the exploration of other extraterrestrial bodies. On Earth, civil engineers have played a key role in design, construction, and operation of ground‐support facilities since the beginning of the space program. The vast and diverse Earth‐based knowledge and experience earned by civil engineers could be applied to create a suitable infrastructure in space to satisfy human needs. Therefore, civil engineers can play a significant role in the future expansion of human endeavors into space. The time has come for civil engineers throughout the world to come together; take the challenge posed by time, human needs, and ambition; and extend their joint expertise toward large‐scale projects in space for the benefit of all.     

Engineering Test Support for Construction in Space

A number of engineers and constructors have been looking at the engineering analyses and syntheses associated with preparations for the establishment of a base on the Moon and human flight to Mars. This paper discusses the importance of early involvement of the engineering test perspective and approach in the engineering analysis, design, and development of capabilities for this construction activity in space, especially construction that incorporates the use of extraterrestrial resources. The effectiveness and suitability of mission equipment and proposed resource extraction processes must be shown by analysis, simulation, ground test, and flight test. Facilities and resources for test and evaluation (T&E) of extraterrestrial facilities must be acquired in a timely fashion, and time must be allowed for T&E.     

Engineering Issues for Early Lunar‐Based Telescopes

A telescope on the Moon is needed for astronomy and can be constructed in this decade or early in the next century. Design for this telescope will be fundamentally different from the design of free‐flying telescopes. Its design will be more like the new Keck telescope being completed on a mountaintop in Hawaii than the Hubble Space Telescope, in low Earth orbit. Success of the lunar‐based telescope will depend on an appropriately engineered structure, a suitable interface (foundation) in the lunar soil, and a carefully thought out construction process. Participation of engineers in identifying and resolving issues for this extraterrestrial engineering and construction project is a natural extension of the traditional engineering role, and will prepare the engineering and construction communities for the subsequent greater challenges associated with basing on the Moon. These communities need to document now the types of data and information that NASA should obtain in the next early lunar missions so that construction on the Moon will be facilitated.     

Isssues in Developing Control Zones for International Space Operations

As the number of space‐faring nations and orbiting spacecraft increases, it is desirable to develop an international traffic‐management strategy to coordinate, monitor, and control the interactions of spacecraft in orbit. Successful strategies will facilitate cooperative missions while still supporting each nation's unique goals and objectives in space. The potential benefits of such a strategy include: reductions in future program costs and increases in mission success through the standardization of space operations and equipment; increased safety through development of a coordinated collision avoidance strategy for active spacecraft and debris; and establishing a basis for legal and economic compensation agreements. One means of implementing such a strategy is to utilize a control zones technique that assigns different types of orbital operations to specific regions of space surrounding a vehicle. This paper considers the issues associated with developing a control‐zones technique to regulate the interactions of spacecraft in proximity to a manned vehicle. It includes discussion of technical and planning issues, flight hardware and software issues, mission‐management parameters, and other constraints. It addresses manned and unmanned vehicle operations, and manual versus automated flight control. A review of the strategies utilized by the Apollo‐Soyuz Test Project and the Space Station Freedom Program is also presented.     

Lunar Astronomical Observatories: Design Studies

The best location in the inner solar system for the grand observatories of the 21st century may be the Moon. A multidisciplinary team including university students and faculty in engineering, astronomy, physics, and geology, and engineers from industry is investigating the Moon as a site for astronomical observatories and is doing conceptual and preliminary designs for these future observatories. Studies encompass lunar facilities for radio astronomy and astronomy at optical, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. Although there are significant engineering challenges in design and construction on the Moon, the rewards for astronomy can be great, such as detection and study of Earth‐like planets orbiting nearby stars, and the task for engineers promises to stimulate advances in analysis and design, materials and structures, automation and robotics, foundations, and controls. Fabricating structures in the reduced‐gravity environment of the Moon will be easier than in the zero‐gravity environment of Earth orbit, as Apollo and space‐shuttle missions have revealed. Construction of observatories on the Moon can be adapted from techniques developed on the Earth, with the advantage that the Moon's weaker gravitational pull makes it possible to build larger devices than are practical on Earth.     

A Civil Engineer's View from Space

From the perspective of a 250‐nautical‐mile orbit aboard the Space Shuttle, the author has had the opportunity to observe the effects of man on the earth, to reflect on his future in space, and to examine the role civil engineers may have in building our future. In the decades to come, civil engineers will require skills that are not currently provided by universities and which are not adequately represented in professional societies. All disciplines of the civil engineering profession will need to examine their strategies to enable them to establish a significant place on the team. From launch pads to remote sensing satellites, from space stations to lunar bases, civil engineers can and should play a significant role in design requirements, engineering, testing, assembly, and operation. The Aerospace Division of the ASCE should take the lead to insure that civil engineers are prepared to meet the challenge.     

Space Hotels: Civil Engineering’s New Frontier

This paper reviews the prospects for the development of commercial hotels in space; it shows that it is increasingly accepted that this could become a lively new field of business within little more than a decade. The key enabler is the availability of low-cost access to space through the operation of reusable passenger-carrying launch vehicles, the development of which requires investment equal to no more than a few months worth of existing space budgets. When this becomes available, competition will lead to rapid development of progressively more exotic facilities in orbit as companies exploit the unique environment of space to provide guests with ever more popular services. Discussed are some of the civil engineering topics that will arise as orbital accommodation grows from assemblies of prefabricated modules to large structures assembled in orbit, including rotating structures offering “artificial gravity,” and eventually to buildings on the lunar surface.     

Educating Civil Engineers to Work in Space

This paper addresses the role of civil engineering in space operations and its impact on undergraduate education. The history of civil engineering and its role in society is discussed. The increasing complexity of the civil engineer's responsibilities from ancient times to the present is articulated. New civil engineering challenges fostered by man's quest to explore and inhabit the solar system and beyond are addressed. These challenges give rise to new requirements for the undergraduate education of tomorrow's civil engineers. The U.S. Air Force Academy's attempt to respond to these new undergraduate requirements is described. The civil engineering curriculum at the Air Force Academy emphasizes preparation for the unique challenges associated with space exploration and habitation. It is described and presented as a model for other undergraduate civil engineering programs that wish to focus on aerospace engineering activities into the 21st century.     

Common Characteristics of Terrestrial and Space Construction

The building of stationary facilities in space and on the lunar surface will bring humankind to the verge of a new era in its exploration of space. Many new and unprecedented construction problems have to be solved. Terrestrial construction technology, developed over centuries, had to overcome similar earthbound extremes. Viable examples include underwater construction and building on the frozen terrain of north and south poles. Many specialized techniques and kinds of equipment have emerged to meet those extreme conditions. This body of knowledge and technology may become a valuable resource for the design and construction of buildings in space. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate why experts from space technology and construction engineering should combine their specialized knowledge to benefit human advances into space.     

Animation Tools for Extraterrestrial Construction

This paper explores the idea of developing space‐construction animation “tools” to facilitate extraterrestrial design and construction activities. These tools would integrate engineering operations in space. However, in order to develop such tools, it is necessary to determine their functional requirements. This involves an assessment of existing technological trends as well as an understanding of the future needs of this technology. The need for improved forms of communication between parties involved in space design and construction suggests the need for a dynamic or animated representation of the construction processes. Computer animation offers a unified approach to modeling the spatial dynamics so crucial in the planning and controlling of construction activities, and evaluation of automation models. For remotely monitored processes, simply providing critical information in an easily—and quickly—understood format could aid the space‐construction manager in anticipating interference and other critical conditions. The use of animation during remotely monitored or remotely controlled construction processes in space could significantly assist construction equipment operators.     

Preparing to Bridge the Lunar Gap

The United States is committed to the exploration of and the expansion into space. A manned earth‐orbiting space station is planned for the next decade and studies continue looking at manned lunar bases. Appropriate planning should be initiated for such a mission now as a high national priority. Many systems must be examined and technologies developed as soon as possible. Some of these include types of power sources, life support systems, construction equipment and techniques, construction methods, lunar mapping, and logistical constraints.     

Space Structures: Issues in Dynamics and Control

A selective technical overview is presented on the vibration and control of large space structures, the analysis, design, and construction of which will require major technical contributions from the civil∕structural, mechanical, and extended engineering communities. The immediacy of the U.S. space station makes the particular emphasis placed on large space structures and their control appropriate. The space station is but one part of the space program, and includes the lunar base, which the space station is to service. This paper attempts to summarize some of the key technical issues and hence provide a starting point for further involvement. The first half of this paper provides an introduction and overview of large space structures and their dynamics; the latter half discusses structural control, including control‐system design and nonlinearities. A crucial aspect of the large space structures problem is that dynamics and control must be considered simultaneously; the problems cannot be addressed individually and coupled as an afterthought.     

Dependence of Lunar Bases on Phobos and Deimos

The Moon is nearly devoid of essential biogenic resources such as water, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen. Lunar bases must have a ready supply of these vital resources since they are easily lost to the vacuum of space. Also, wet chemical processes dominate the chemical industries. Extraterrestrial sources of these materials must be found to provide for life support, construction, and manufacturing. If Phobos and Deimos have carbonaceous chondritic compositions, they are ideal targets for extraterrestrial exploitation. They may contain biogenic resources such as water, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen, as well as easily recoverable structural materials.     

Motion Control of Space Structures

A new area of civil engineering is emerging as we begin to establish a permanent presence in space. The new area of civil engineering is the motion control of space structures. This paper describes why the motion control of space structures is fundamentally a civil engineering problem.     

Technical Requirements for Lunar Structures

The moon has recently regained the interest of many of the world’s space agencies. Lunar missions are the first steps in expanding manned and unmanned exploration inside our solar system. The moon represents various options; it can be used as a laboratory in low gravity, it is the closest and most accessible planetary object from the Earth, and it possesses many resources that humans could potentially exploit. This paper has two objectives: to review the current status of the knowledge of lunar environmental requirements for future lunar structures, and to attempt to classify different future lunar structures based on the current knowledge of the subject. The paper divides lunar development into three phases. The first phase is building shelters for equipment only; in the second phase, small temporary habitats will be built, and finally in the third phase, habitable lunar bases will be built with observatories, laboratories, or production plants. Initially, the main aspects of the lunar environment that will cause concerns will be lunar dust and meteoroids, and later will include effects due to the vacuum environment, lunar gravity, radiation, a rapid change of temperature, and the length of the lunar day. This paper presents a classification of technical requirements based on the current knowledge of these factors, and their importance in each of the phases of construction. It gives recommendations for future research in relation to the development of conceptual plans for lunar structures, and for the evolution of a lunar construction code to direct these structural designs. Some examples are presented along with the current status of the bibliography of the subject.     

A Different Race: The Philosophy

The infrastructure of a nation is the foundation of the nation's ability to compete in world markets, maintain a credible deterrence, influence other nations, and create surpluses for use in social programs. Part of the infrastructure that a nation will depend on economically and militarily in the 21st century will be located in space. Space, besides being an economic, technical, and strategic opportunity for various companies and countries, can also be a way to use engineering and technology to improve the condition of the human race. This paper explains a strategy for reprogramming money from the development and deployment of strategic offensive weapons and their delivery systems to developing the facilities and capabilities needed for nations to be active participants in the exploration and industrialization of space. The creation of the infrastructure needed to pioneer the space frontier will require all engineering professions, especially civil engineering, to stretch and reach for the stars.     

Structural Design Considerations of an Inflatable Rigidizable Space Shuttle Experiment

The Air Force Institute of Technology is in the process of designing a space shuttle experiment designated as the Rigidized Inflatable Get-Away-Special Experiment (RIGEX) to study the effects of microgravity on the deployment of inflatable rigidizable composite structures. Once in space, the experiment is designed to inflate and rigidize three composite tubes (which could be used in a more global space structure), then perform a vibration analysis on each by exciting the structures using piezoelectric patches mounted to the walls of the tubes and collect data via accelerometers. The experiment is designed to take part in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) get-away-special program and as such must meet structural verification standards to be pay loaded as such. This paper presents the structural and vibration analysis of the RIGEX assembly and inflatable composite tubes using ABAQUS finite-element analysis (FEA) software. Results of the FEA showed good correlation when compared to eigenvalue/eigenvector experimental results obtained from ping testing the actual structures. This finite-element analysis has been used to modify the experiments design to meet NASA structural integrity requirements and verify the natural frequency of the RIGEX structural support assemblies.     

Multiterrain Earth Landing Systems Applicable for Manned Space Capsules

A key element of the President’s Vision for Space Exploration is the development of a new space transportation system to replace Shuttle that will enable manned exploration of the moon, Mars, and beyond. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration has created the Constellation Program to develop this architecture, which includes the Ares launch vehicle and Orion manned spacecraft. The Orion spacecraft must carry six astronauts and its primary structure should be reusable, if practical. These requirements led the Constellation Program to consider a baseline land landing on return to earth. To assess the landing system options for Orion, a review of current operational parachute landing systems such as those used for the F-111 escape module and the Soyuz is performed. In particular, landing systems with airbags and retrorockets that would enable reusability of the Orion capsule are investigated. In addition, Apollo tests and analyses conducted in the 1960s for both water and land landings are reviewed. Finally, test data and dynamic finite-element simulations are presented to understand land landings for the Orion spacecraft.     

Magnetic Suspended AB-Structures and Motionless Space Stations

In this paper, the writer provides new ideas, theory, and computations for building with the current technology low-cost magnetic suspended structures and motionless space stations up to 37,000 (geosynchronous orbit) km of altitude. These structures (towers) can be used for the launching of spaceships, radio, television, and communication transmissions for tourism, scientific observation of the Earth’s surface, weather of the top atmosphere, and military radiolocation. The main idea and attribute of the invention is the following: The suspended structures (space station) are supported by a MAGNETIC column which has a mass (weight) close to zero. The writer estimates two projects of motionless magnetic space stations: one height is equal to 100 km and the second project up to 37,000 km (geosynchronous orbit). These projects are not expensive and do not require a high crane or complex technology. They do require a superconductive material and a thin strong film composed of artificial fibers. Both materials are fabricated by the current industry. The structures (space stations) can easily be built using present technology without rockets. The structure is built by unreeling a special roll. The structures (towers) can be used (for communication, tourism, etc.) during the construction process and provide self-financing for further construction. The building does not require work at high altitudes; all construction can be done on the Earth’s surface. The transport system (climber) consists of a very simple magnetic engine provided with electricity from a wire connecting the structure with the Earth. Problems involving security, control, repair, and stability of the proposed towers are shortly considered. The writer is prepared to discuss these and other problems with serious organizations desiring to research and develop this project. Magnetic towers may also become a civic symbol giving any city a distinctive landmark such as the Eiffel Tower in Paris or the Ostankino Tower (Russian: Останкинская телебашня, Ostankinskaya telebashnya) in Moscow.