Predicting diffused-bubble oxygen transfer rate using the discrete-bubble model

A discrete-bubble model that predicts the rate of oxygen transfer in diffused-bubble systems is evaluated. Key inputs are the applied gas flow rate and the initial bubble size distribution. The model accounts for changes in the volume of individual bubbles due to transfer of oxygen and nitrogen (and hence changing partial pressure), variation in hydrostatic pressure, and changes in temperature. The bubble-rise velocity and mass-transfer coefficient, both known functions of the bubble diameter, are continually adjusted. The model is applied to predict the results of diffused-bubble oxygen transfer tests conducted in a 14-m deep tank at three air flow rates. All of the test data are predicted to within 15%. The range of bubble diameters (0.2-2 mm) spans the region of greatest variation in rise velocity and mass-transfer coefficient. For simplicity, the Sauter-mean diameter is used rather than the full bubble size distribution without loss of accuracy. The model should prove useful in the design and optimization of hypolimnetic oxygenation systems, as well as other diffused-bubble applications.     

Modeling of bubble plume design and oxygen transfer for reservoir restoration

A one-dimensional bubble plume model is described to predict the gaseous mass transfer of air bubbles into ambient water and the appropriate design criteria of a bubbler for a linearly stratified reservoir. The bubble plume behavior is governed by two dimensionless parameters: G, the strength of stratification, and M, the source strength (via airflow rate). Mechanical efficiency, an indicator of bubbler operating cost; the rate of plume entrainment flux, an indicator of mixing effectiveness; and the oxygen dissolution efficiency are analyzed as functions of G and M for different air bubble sizes to describe optimum bubbler design conditions. A bubble radius close to 1 mm is recommended as it favors higher mechanical efficiency and oxygen dissolution efficiency.     

Effect of hypolimnetic oxygenation on oxygen depletion rates in two water-supply reservoirs

Oxygenation systems, such as bubble-plume diffusers, are used to improve water quality by replenishing dissolved oxygen (DO) in the hypolimnia of water-supply reservoirs. The diffusers induce circulation and mixing, which helps distribute DO throughout the hypolimnion. Mixing, however, has also been observed to increase hypolimnetic oxygen demand (HOD) during system operation, thus accelerating oxygen depletion. Two water-supply reservoirs (Spring Hollow Reservoir (SHR) and Carvins Cove Reservoir (CCR)) that employ linear bubble-plume diffusers were studied to quantify diffuser effects on HOD. A recently validated plume model was used to predict oxygen addition rates. The results were used together with observed oxygen accumulation rates to evaluate HOD over a wide range of applied gas flow rates. Plume-induced mixing correlated well with applied gas flow rate and was observed to increase HOD. Linear relationships between applied gas flow rate and HOD were found for both SHR and CCR. HOD was also observed to be independent of bulk hypolimnion oxygen concentration, indicating that HOD is controlled by induced mixing. Despite transient increases in HOD, oxygenation caused an overall decrease in background HOD, as well as a decrease in induced HOD during diffuser operation, over several years. This suggests that the residual or background oxygen demand decreases from one year to the next. Despite diffuser-induced increases in HOD, hypolimnetic oxygenation remains a viable method for replenishing DO in thermally-stratified water-supply reservoirs such as SHR and CCR.     

Study on two operating conditions of a full-scale oxidation ditch for optimization of energy consumption and effluent quality by using CFD model

The operating condition of an oxidation ditch (OD) has significant impact on energy consumption and effluent quality of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). An experimentally validated numerical tool, based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model, was proposed to optimize the operating condition by considering two important factors: flow field and dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration profiles. The model is capable of predicting flow pattern and oxygen mass transfer characteristics in ODs equipped with surface aerators and submerged impellers. Performance demonstration and comparison of two operating conditions (existing and improved) were carried out in two full-scale Carrousel ODs at the Ping Dingshan WWTP in Henan, China. A moving wall model and a fan model were designed to simulate surface aerators and submerged impellers, respectively. Oxygen mass transfer in the ditch was predicted by using a unit analysis method. In aeration zones, the mass inlets representing the surface aerators were set as one source of DO. In the whole straight channel, the oxygen consumption was modeled by using modified BOD-DO model. The following results were obtained: (1) the CFD model characterized flow pattern and DO concentration profiles in the full-scale OD. The predicted flow field values were within 1.98 ± 4.28% difference from the actual measured values while the predicted DO concentration values were within −4.71 ± 4.15% of the measured ones, (2) a surface aerator should be relocated to around 15 m from the curve bend entrance to reduce energy loss caused by fierce collisions at the wall of the curve bend, and (3) DO concentration gradients in the OD under the improved operating condition were more favorable for occurrence of simultaneous nitrification and denitrification (SND).     

Impact of bubble and free surface oxygen transfer on diffused aeration systems

The primary location of oxygen transfer in a diffused aeration system is examined by separately determining the surface air-water and bubble-water mass transfer coefficients. The mass transfer model developed to determine the mass transfer coefficients advances the McWhirter and Hutter (A.I.Ch.E. J. 35(9) (1989) 1527) model by tracking oxygen and nitrogen transfer into and out of the bubbles as they rise to the water surface. The resulting vertical profiles of the liquid-phase equilibrium concentration inside the bubble and the gas-phase oxygen composition give insight into how the bubble-water concentration gradient changes over depth. The surface mass transfer coefficient, k(Ls)a(s), is 59-85% of the bubble mass transfer coefficient, k(L)a(b), and the driving concentration difference is smaller for surface transfer. Surface transfer and bubble transfer both contribute significantly to oxygen transfer; however, bubble transfer is the primary mode of oxygen transfer for this system at the air flow rates used. Further experiments demonstrate that most of the surface transfer occurs above the bubble plume.     

组合推流反应器模型用于河道需氧量计算

建立了简便的组合推流反应器模型，它可用于上海苏州河的曝气需氧量计算和充氧后的水质预测，利用该模型可计算出在调水情况下。为确保各河段的溶解氧达到2mg/L的预期目标，苏州河的北新泾-河口段水体的总需氧量为24.72tO2/d。     

Sedimentary microbial oxygen demand for laminar flow over a sediment bed of finite length

Dead organic material accumulated on the bed of a lake, reservoir or wetland often provides the substrate for substantial microbial activity as well as chemical processes that withdraw dissolved oxygen (DO) from the water column. A model to estimate the actual DO profile and the "sedimentary oxygen demand (SOD)" must specify the rate of microbial or chemical activity in the sediment as well as the diffusive supply of DO from the water column through the diffusive boundary layer into the sediment. Most previous experimental and field studies have considered this problem with the assumptions that the diffusive boundary layer is (a) turbulent and (b) fully developed. These assumptions require that (a) the flow velocity above the sediment bed is fast enough to produce turbulent mixing in the boundary layer, and (b) the sediment bed is long. In this paper a model for laminar flow and SOD over a sediment bed of finite length is presented and the results are compared with those for turbulent flow. Laminar flow near a sediment bed is encountered in quiescent water bodies such as lakes, reservoirs, river backwaters, wetlands and ponds under calm wind conditions. The diffusive oxygen transfer through the laminar diffusive boundary layer above the sediment surface can restrict the microbial or chemical oxygen uptake inside the sediment significantly. The developing laminar diffusive boundary layer above the sediment/water interface is modeled based on the analogy with heat transfer, and DO uptake inside the sediment is modeled by Michaelis-Menten microbial growth kinetics. The model predicts that the rate of SOD at the beginning of the reactive sediment bed is solely dependent on microbial density in the sediment regardless of flow velocity and type. The rate of SOD, and the DO penetration depth into the sediment decrease in stream-wise direction over the length of the sediment bed, as the diffusive boundary layer above the sediment/water interface thickens. With increasing length of the sediment bed both SOD rate and DO penetration depth into the sediment tend towards zero if the flow is laminar, but tend towards a finite value if the flow is turbulent. That value can be determined as a function of both flow velocity and microbial density. The effect of the developing laminar boundary layer on SOD is strongest at the very lowest flow velocity and/or highest microbial density inside the sediment. Under quiescent conditions, the effective SOD exerted by a reactive sediment bed of a lake or wetland approaches zero, i.e. no or very little oxygen demand is exerted on the overlying water column, except at the leading edge.     

On the reoxygenation efficiency of diffused air aeration

One technique used to increase the dissolved oxygen concentration of polluted waters is the bubbling of air through a diffuser pipe located at depth, thereby producing a bubble curtain from which oxygen transfer to the water occurs.

The results of laboratory studies on the aeration efficiency of a diffuser placed along the entire width of a flume, perpendicular to a cross flow are presented (two dimensional aeration). Parameters investigated include (1) diffuser type-porous materials with mean pore sizes of 40, 90 and 180 μm and perforated pipes with 0.4, 0.6 and 1.0 mm diameter ports (2) air flow rate per unit width 3–53 m³ (m h)⁻¹ and (3) cross flow velocity (2.5–15 cm s⁻¹. The effect of variation from the two dimensional situation is also discussed as well as the consequence of using oxygen instead of air, and the sensitivity to discharge angle, port spacing and the free surface. The measured efficiencies are compared with theory as well as available laboratory and field data.

The major conclusions are (1) aeration efficiencies using diffused air aeration are on the order of 2–13%m⁻¹ (2) the aeration efficiency increases with increasing cross flow velocity and decreasing air flow rate per unit width (3) aeration efficiencies using porous filters, for air flow rates less than 40 m³ (m h)⁻¹, are significantly higher (a factor of 2–3) than those achieved using perforated pipes (4) changing the pore size from 40 to 180 μm, the port size from 0.4 to 1.0 mm or the port spacing does not significantly effect the aeration efficiency (5) aeration using oxygen is somewhat less efficient than that using air. However, since equivalent oxygen bubbles contain approximately five times more oxygen than air bubbles, more oxygen is transferred on an absolute basis at the same gas flow rate using compressed oxygen as opposed to air (6) aeration efficiency resulting from aeration over a portion of the entire width can be reasonably predicted using the results of the two dimensional studies and (7) the available laboratory and field data compare well with the results of these laboratory studies.     

Effects of impurities on oxygen transfer rates in diffused aeration systems

A series of unsteady-state reaeration tests were performed in a 500-L tank at 0.81-4.58 m3/h diffused-air flow rate and 288-302 K water temperature. Three different types of impurities: soybean oil, surfactant, and diatomaceous earth were doped to simulate the impurities in wastewaters and the effects of the impurities on the oxygen transfer rate were investigated. The ASCE and the two-zone oxygen mass-transfer models were used to analyze the unsteady-state reaeration data and the volumetric mass-transfer coefficients determined from the unsteady-state reaeration data were correlated as a function of the diffused-air flow rate, water temperature, and impurity concentration. The results showed that the alpha factors based on the ASCE model are less sensitive to the impurity concentration while the presence of the impurities significantly reduces the alpha factors in the gas bubble zone. The saturation DO concentration and volumetric oxygen mass-transfer rate can be predicted by the two-zone model along with the correlation obtained in this study.     

Gas transfer from air diffusers

The bubble and surface volumetric mass transfer coefficients for oxygen, k(L)a(b) and k(L)a(s), are separately determined for 179 aeration tests, with diffuser depths ranging from 2.25 to 32 m, using the DeMoyer et al. 12003. Impact of bubble and free surface oxygen transfer on diffused aeration systems. Water Res 37, 1890-1904] mass transfer model. Two empirical characterization equations are developed for k(L)a(b) and k(L)a(s), correlating the coefficients to air flow, Qa, diffuser depth, hd, cross-sectional area, Acs, and volume, V. The characterization equations indicate that the bubble transfer coefficient, k(L)a(b), increases with increasing gas flow rate and depth, and decreases with increasing water volume. For fine bubble diffusers, k(L)a(b) is approximately six times greater than k(L)a(b) for coarse bubble diffusers. The surface transfer coefficient, k(L)A(s), increases with increasing gas flow rate and diffuser depth. The characterization equations make it possible to predict the gas transfer that will occur across bubble interfaces and across the free surface with a bubble plume at depths up to 32 m and with variable air discharge in deep tanks and reservoirs.     

Factors influencing oxygen transfer in fine pore diffused aeration

A bench-scale experiment was conducted in a 701. tank of tap water to examine the effect of four design variables on oxygen transfer in a fine pore diffused aeration system. The experiment used non-steady state gas transfer methodology to examine the effect of air flow rate, air flow rate per diffuser, orifice diameter and reduced tank surface area on the overall oxygen transfer coefficient (K_La₂₀, h⁻¹); standard oxygen transfer rate (OT₂, g O₂ h⁻¹); energy efficiency (E_p, g O₂ kWh⁻¹) and oxygen transfer efficiency (E_o, %). The experiments demonstrated that K_La₂₀ and OT_s increased with air flow rate (9.4–18.8 1 min⁻¹) in the 40 and 140 μ diameter orifice range; however, E_p and E₀ were not affected. Reducing the air flow rate per fine pore diffuser (40 and 140 μ diameter pore size) significantly increased K_La₂₀, OT_s, E_p and E₀. A decrease in orifice diameter from 140 to 40 μ had no effect on K_La₂₀, OT_s, E_p and E₀. A reduction in tank surface area had a marginally significant inverse effect on K_La₂₀ and OT_s, and no effect on E_p and E_o. The mean bubble size produced by the 40 and 140 μ diffusers was 4.0 and 4.2 mm, respectively. There was no consistent effect of air flow rate on bubble size within the range of air flow rates used in this experiment. In clean water aeration applications, the optimum system efficiency will be obtained using the largest number of fine pore diffusers operated at low air flow rates per diffuser. In wastewater treatment plants, higher air flow rates per diffuser should be used to prevent diffuser biofouling and keep biological solids in suspension. Wastewater systems are purposely operated at less than optimum transfer efficiencies in exchange for reduced diffuser maintenance and improved mixing. In either situation, changes in tank surface area and diffuser pore size (provided that pore diameter remains between 40 and 140 μ) are unlikely to have any significant effect on aeration system efficiency.     

Study on performance of horizontal single pass shell and multi-tube heat exchanger with baffles by air bubble injection

ABSTRACT

The single pass shell and multi-tube heat exchanger with double segmental baffles'’ performance improvement were experimentally investigated by two methods of air injection into shell side when an increase in air bubble created an effect in the corresponding values of shell and tube heat exchanger such as the overall heat transfer coefficient, effectiveness, NTU and the pressure loss. In the first method, air bubble injection into shell side was parallel to the cold water flow; also in the second method, air bubble injection into shell side was cross flow to the cold water with different air flow rates to calculate approximately the most favourable performance conditions. 1–6?LPM of air flow rates and 10–20?LPM shell side water flow rates were transformed with constant tube side hot water flow rate.     

A model for the design of hypolimnetic aerators

Diffusor depth, air flow rates, rise velocity and cross-sectional area of the riser tube are the major variables considered in the simple empirical model presented for use in the design of hypolimnetic aerators. Water flow values predicted by the model were correlated with those observed in twenty published field experiments (r = 0.893). The model determined that some aerators are inefficient and their design could be improved. A discussion of required oxygen input during aeration is presented in which the problems of hypolimnetic oxygen depletion rates and oxygen transfer efficiencies (observed and absolute) are considered.     

Model-based evaluation of temperature and inflow variations on a partial nitrification-ANAMMOX biofilm process

A mathematical model describing nitrification (nitritification plus nitratification) and anaerobic ammonium oxidation (ANAMMOX) combined in a biofilm reactor was developed. Based on this model, a previously proposed one-reactor completely autotrophic ammonium removal over nitrite (CANON) process was evaluated for its temperature dependency and behaviour under variable inflow. The temperature-dependency of growth rates of the involved organisms is described by an Arrhenius-type equation. If temperature decreases, the activities of the involved organisms decrease. This means that thicker biofilms are needed or the ammonium surface load (ASL) to the biofilm should be decreased to maintain full N-removal at lower temperatures. Although the growth rate of nitrite oxidisers is higher than that of ammonium oxidisers at lower temperatures, these organisms can be effectively competed out due to a lower oxygen affinity. Variable inflow or dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration negatively affect the N-removal efficiency due to an unbalance between applied ASL load and required oxygen concentration. A variation of the dissolved oxygen concentration in a small range (+/- 0.2g O2/m3) has no significant influence on the process performance, which means that requirements on electrode sensitivity and a DO control scheme are not too stringent. A variable ASL has obvious influence on the process performance, at both constant and variable DO. A good adjustment of DO in accordance with the variable ASL is needed to optimise the N-removal efficiency. At T = 20 degrees C, an N-removal efficiency of 88% is possible at ASL = 0.5 g NH4+ - N/mr2 d, in a biofilm of at least 0.7 mm thickness and a DO level of 0.3 g O2/m3 in the bulk liquid.     

Unsteady diffusional mass transfer at the sediment/water interface: Theory and significance for SOD measurement

Dissolved oxygen uptake at a sediment/water interface (SOD) is controlled by mass transport and/or biochemical reactions in two adjacent boundary layers: the diffusive boundary layer delta(D) in the water and the penetration depth delta in the sediment. Either one of those boundary layers or both can be controlling. The transition from sediment control to water control is a function of shear velocity at the sediment/water interface (U(*)) and biochemical activity rate (micro(0)) in the sediment. A model was developed for the unsteady response of SOD and DO profiles near the sediment/water interface. Michaelis-Menten kinetics were used initially, but zero order kinetics work just as well when the half saturation coefficient K(O(2)) is small as was suggested by field data. Beginning with zero DO in the sediments the times required to reach steady state DO profiles and SOD was on the order of minutes to hours, faster where biochemical activity is strong. The values of SOD estimated by the model were compared with experimental data to verify the reliability of the model. The model can reproduce observed penetration depths and diffusive boundary layer thickness. Values of SOD estimated by the model were of same magnitude as observed data. The unsteady DO uptake model can be used to provide guidance for field measurements of SOD. Placing a chamber (with a stirrer) into the sediments disturbs the DO equilibrium at the sediment/water interface. A new equilibrium will be reached within a time that can be measured in terms of cumulative DO consumption in the chamber (SOD exerted). Upper bounds for (SOD exerted) are larger when biochemical activity in the sediments is smaller. Values of SOD exerted are less than 0.1gm(-2) when micro(0) is less than 50mgl(-1)d(-1) and U(*)>0.1cm/s. In other words, steady state conditions are easier to reach for high SOD values. Actual times required to reach steady state can be from minutes to hours. If flow conditions in the chamber and at the natural sediment/water interface are much different, measured SOD values have to be adjusted. A procedure for the adjustments, which can be substantial, has been developed.     

Influence of mixed liquor recycle ratio and dissolved oxygen on performance of pre-denitrification submerged membrane bioreactors

The conflicting influence of mixed liquor recycle ratio and dissolved oxygen on nitrogen removal and membrane fouling of a pre-denitrification submerged MBR was investigated in this study. It was found that a high aeration rate of 10 L air/min was able to minimize membrane fouling as compared with lower aeration rates of 5 and 2.5L air/min in this study. Faster fouling at lower aeration rate was due to the decrease in cross-flow velocity across the membrane surface. However, high DO concentration (average of 5.1+/-0.5mg O2/L) present in the recycle mixed liquor at an aeration rate of 10 L air/min deteriorated the TN removal efficiency when operating at a recycle ratio of more than 3. A lower aeration rate of 5L air/min, resulting in an average DO concentration of 3.4+/-0.7 mg O2/L in the recycle mixed liquor, led to an improvement in TN removal efficiency: 63%, 80%, 84% and 89% for mixed liquor recycle ratio of 1, 3, 5 and 10, respectively. Further decrease in aeration rate to 2.5L air/min, resulting in an average DO concentration of 1.9+/-0.8 mg O2/L, did not improve the TN removal efficiency. Using a newly developed simplified nitrification-denitrification model, it was calculated that the COD/NO3(-)-N required for denitrification at 10 L air/min aeration rate was higher than those associated with 5 and 2.5L air/min aeration rates. The model also revealed that denitrification at an aeration rate of 10 L air/min was limited by COD concentration present in the wastewater when operating at a mixed liquor recycle ratio of 3 and higher.     

基于吸收式制冷沿程加热气泡泵的启动性能

气泡泵是太阳能无泵吸收式制冷的核心部件,其启动性能影响无泵吸收式制冷机的实际工程运用。以水为工质,实验研究了系统初压力,沉浸高度,提升管入口工质温度,加热功率对沿程加热气泡泵启动性能的影响。实验结果表明:当加热功率过低时,气泡泵偶有泵起,但不能正常启动,存在一个最低启动功率。气泡泵正常启动分为三个阶段,延迟阶段:工质温度迅速攀升,但液体提升量为零。过渡阶段:工质温度缓慢上升,液体提升量不断升高。稳定阶段:温度和流量基本保持不变。系统初压力越低,启动时间和最低启动功率减小,提升管内工质温升速度越快。沉浸高度越高,系统越容易启动,但是对提升管出口工质温度的影响很小。系统初压力一定时,随着提升管进口工质温度升高,延迟时间和启动时间减小,当进口温度超过30℃时,其对延迟时间的影响已经很小。启动时间随加热功率的增加而减小。     

A nodal model for displacement ventilation and chilled ceiling systems in office spaces

A nodal model has been developed to represent room heat transfer in displacement ventilation and chilled ceiling systems. The model uses precalculated air flow rates to predict the air-temperature distribution and the division of the cooling load between the ventilation air and the chilled ceiling. The air movements in the plumes and the rest of the room are represented separately using a network of 10 air nodes. The values of the capacity rate parameters are calculated by solving the heat and mass balance equations for each node using measured temperatures as inputs. Correlations between parameter values for a range of cooling loads and supply air flow rates are presented.     

Electrochemical generation of hydrogen peroxide from dissolved oxygen in acidic solutions.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was electro-generated in a parallel-plate electrolyzer by reduction of dissolved oxygen (DO) in acidic solutions containing dilute supporting electrolyte. Operational parameters such as cathodic potential, oxygen purity and mass flow rate, cathode surface area. pH, temperature, and inert supporting electrolyte concentration were systematically investigated as to improve the Faradic current efficiency of H2O2 generation. Results indicate that significant self-decomposition of H2O2 only occurs at high pH (> 9) and elevated temperatures (> 23 degrees C). Results also indicate that the optimal conditions for H2O2 generation are cathodic potential of -0.5 V vs. saturated calomel electrode (SCE), oxygen mass flow rate of 8.2 x 10(-2) mol/min, and pH 2. Under the optimal conditions, the average current density and average current efficiency are 6.4A/m2 and 81%, respectively. However, when air is applied at the optimal flow rate of oxygen, the average current density markedly decreases to 2.1 A/m2, while the average current efficiency slightly increases to 90%. The limiting current density is 6.4 A/m2, which is independent of cathode geometry and surface area. H2O2 generation is favored at low temperatures. In the concentration range studied (0.01-0.25 M), the inert supporting electrolyte (NaClO4) affects the total potential drop of the electrolyzer, but does not affect the net generation rate of H2O2.     

Factors affecting fine bubble creation and bubble size for activated sludge

This paper addresses a study of air bubble creation in wastewater treatment system using both computational fluid dynamic (CFD) and experimental techniques. Based on the results found in this work, it was found that the bubble size depends on several factors such as flow rate, inlet pressure and contact angle for rubber membrane. Among these factors, it was found that the flow rate has the largest effect on the bubble size followed by membrane material contact angle. The punch size has a moderate effect on the bubble size while the punch length and punch direction have slight effect on bubble size. Finer bubbles are desired and they provide larger surface area and longer residency time which will improve the standard oxygen transfer.