Millimeter-wave radars for remotely sensing clouds andprecipitation

Millimeter-wave radars have been used since the early 1950s to study clouds and precipitation, but until recently these early instruments were limited to simple backscatter power measurements and were plagued by hardware problems. However, development of solid-state millimeter-wave componentry and high-power klystron amplifiers has spurred the evolution of reliable, coherent radars operating up to 95 GHz. In addition, advances in digital signal processing technology have resulted in single-card processors that can simultaneously execute algorithms to compute reflectivity, Doppler, and polarimetric quantities in real time. A review of the current state of the art in millimeter-wave cloud radars is presented, including a discussion of transmitters, antennas, and receiver components. Two radar systems built by the University of Massachusetts are described, including a mobile, dual-frequency (33- and 95-GHz) polarimetric radar, and an airborne 95-GHz polarimetric radar that was recently flown in a cooperative experiment with the University of Wyoming. Spaceborne applications are also discussed, especially the use of satellite-based 95-GHz radars for measuring the vertical distribution of clouds     

Classification of particles in stratiform clouds using the 33 and95 GHz polarimetric cloud profiling radar system (CPRS)

This paper describes the identification of regions of ice, cloud droplets, rain, mixed-phase hydrometers, and insects in stratiform clouds using 33 and 95 GHz radar measurements of reflectivity, linear-depolarization ratio (LDR), dual-wavelength ratio, and velocity from a single-antenna radar system. First, the radar system, experiment, and data products are described. Then, regions are classified using a rule-based classifier derived primarily from LDR, velocity, and altitude. Next, a region-dependent attenuation-correction algorithm is developed to remove attenuation biases in the reflectivity estimate, and histograms of the corrected data are presented for each data product and class. The labeled regions and attenuation-corrected data are then used to train a neural net and maximum likelihood classifier. These agree with the rule-based classifier 96% and 94% of the time, respectively. Finally, the paper evaluates the importance of measuring dual-frequency parameters, velocity, and depolarization ratio     

94GHz机载测云雷达总体技术研究

云宏微观参数信息的获取是现代气象探测的重要环节。根据国内外94GHz机载测云雷达现状,结合机载测云的特点,分析了机栽测云雷达的技术难点,在云雷达技术体制、观测方式、系统参数的设计以及环境适应性要求方面提出了总体设计思路,并时机内及机外系统标校方法提出了建议。通过对w波段上地面主杂波及副瓣杂波回波功率的计算,确认了机载测云雷达杂波抑制的必要性并系统地提出了杂波抑制的解决方案,为后续的工程实施提供理论支持。     

Study of Millimeter-Wave Radar for Helicopter Assisted-Landing System

Landing helicopters on rough unprepared terrain has always been considered hazardous, since the massive dust cloud generated by wind drafts from the helicopter's rotors completely obstructs the pilot's view of the landing area. This article presents a performance assessment of a proposed millimeter-wave (MMW) three-dimensional imaging radar system, specifically meant for helicopter assisted landing. The assessment includes simulation of radar backscattering from the underlying rough terrain, in addition to the signal attenuation and scattering from dust clouds generated by the helicopter's rotors. Terrain scattering is simulated in two steps: 1) generation of a two-scale random rough surface according to prescribed statistics of a large-scale undulation and a small-scale surface roughness; and 2) simulation of the returned signal, including the effects of the real-aperture radar parameters and the terrain-backscatter response. Details of the three-dimensional imaging algorithm are presented. Single-scattering theory is used to simulate the effects of a dust cloud - including signal attenuation and backscatter clutter generation - on the radar's performance. It is shown that operating in the upper millimeter-wave regime (70 GHz-220 GHz) is the most practical solution for a compact, high-resolution, three-dimensional imaging system for this problem.     

毫米波雷达自适应门限点云成像方法研究

毫米波雷达作为一种重要的车载传感器,在自动驾驶领域得到了广泛地应用。近年来随着汽车智能化程度的提高,高质量雷达点云的生成受到了人们的极大关注。传统毫米波雷达点云成像由于存在杂波点太多、有效点云稀疏等缺点而限制了其在自动驾驶领域的发展。因此,如何提高毫米波雷达点云密度和质量成为了业界研究的重点问题。近年来,随着多输入多输出（MIMO）技术以及控制多片级联同步技术的成熟,使得毫米波雷达天线的角度分辨率得到了极大提升,推动了毫米波雷达在点云成像上的发展。在此基础上,本文设计了一套完整的毫米波雷达系统级点云成像算法,并使用TI公司的AWR2243级联雷达开发套件对实际场景进行数据采集,生成了较为致密可信的毫米波雷达三维点云图像,基本实现了对车载平台侧面场景的有效还原。      

AMTI对箔条杂波抑制作用的仿真

机载动目标显示(AMTI)技术广泛应用于机载雷达系统,用于抑制和衰减地物等静止物体的背景回波信号。文中根据AMTI的基本原理,提出利用AMTI抑制箔条慢动杂波的方法,并建立基于AMTI的机载雷达信号处理系统模型,利用该系统对目标飞机和箔条云回波信号进行信号处理仿真,对比分析仿真结果,验证了AMTI对箔条云杂波具有明显的抑制作用,为空战中利用AMTI技术抑制箔条杂波提供了理论依据。     

地基35 GHz测云雷达回波强度的衰减订正研究

为了订正大气和云对毫米波雷达信号的衰减,选取了层状云、降水性层状云及对流云个例,进行了衰减订正试验.根据雷达反射率因子Z与衰减系数k的经验关系,采用分级逐库订正法进行订正.结果表明,对于回波强度比较弱的层状云来说,订正后数据可靠性较高; 对于降水回波来说,雨水及传播路径中的丰富水汽都会造成毫米波信号的严重衰减,因此降水云的衰减订正难度大.经过订正后,虽然还存在误差,但对毫米波雷达数据的质量有明显改善.     

毫米波测云雷达回波的衰减订正研究

毫米波测云雷达探测云目标时,电磁波除了受到云目标衰减之外,还受到大气传输中氧气以及水汽的衰减,电磁波的衰减导致雷达观测到的回波强度小于云目标的实际回波强度,这种误差将影响云内结构的反演。因此,为了使毫米波测云雷达的探测数据正确地反演出云目标的宏观物理特征,必须对进行毫米波测云雷达工作频率下气象目标物的衰减进行订正。主要利用逐库衰减订正算法以及分级逐库衰减订正算法对英国Chilbolton 观测场94GHz 毫米波测云雷达的一次降水云观测结果进行了垂直方向的大气衰减订正研究,并比较逐库衰减订正算法以及分级逐库衰减订正算法间的反演差异。同时,利用国际电信联盟ITU-RP. 676-10 建议书中氧气以及水汽衰减订正公式进行了毫米波测云雷达探测数据的二次订正。分析和对比结果表明,衰减系数的变化对于云目标的宏观物理特征反演有着明显的影响,并且分级逐库衰减订正法的订正效果强于逐库衰减订正法。     

Observed extinction by clouds at 95 GHz

Measurements of backscattered power were made in maritime stratus clouds with a 95 GHz radar mounted on an aircraft. The aircraft also carried probes for in situ cloud measurements of liquid water content (LWC) and hydrometeor size distribution. Horizontal flight segments of 5-10 km length, over which the LWC was relatively uniform, were selected for analysis. Mean values of LWC ranged from 0.05 to 0.8 g/m³. The observations yielded an extinction coefficient of 4.6 dB/km per g/m³ of cloud water     

Bistatic radar measurements of ice-cloud reflectivities in the upper troposphere

Results of 15.7 GHz bistatic radar measurements of scattering from ice clouds are presented and the vertical profiles of the reflectivity factor exceeded for small percentages of time inferred. The results have implications for terrestrial and earth-space communications systems sharing frequency bands above 10GHz and for earth-space systems utilising orthogonal polarisations to increase capacity.     

基于Ka波段毫米波云雷达多普勒谱的降雪微物理过程的分析

云中过冷水滴的识别对于预警飞机积冰及云-降水物理研究具有重要意义。本文利用美国ARM-AMF2在芬兰的35GHz测云雷达多普勒谱数据,建立了谱峰识别算法,对全局谱进行了谱分离,识别出了过冷水滴然后,经过谱矩计算得到不同类型粒子的反射率因子、多普勒速度、谱宽,最后根据经验关系反演云中液态水含量,并与微波辐射计探测结果进行对比。结果表明：(1)混合云中,雪花主导了毫米波雷达总回波强度,因此根据总雷达反射率因子反演液态水含量会造成低估;(2)冰雪晶粒子在过冷水层(SWL)中多普勒速度随反射率因子的变化梯度比在冰雪层(ISL)中大;(3)多普勒谱反演得到过冷水的液态水路径(LWP)与微波辐射计反演结果一致性较好,说明毫米波雷达能够有效估量云中液态水路径。     

Predictive methods for rain attenuation using radar and in-situ measurements tested against the 28-GHz Comstar beacon signal

A program to measure the rain attenuation of the Comstar beacon signal at 28.56 GHz has been in continuous operation since March of 1977 at Wallops Island, VA. During the summer of 1977 simultaneous radar and disdrometer measurements at the site were also made and used for predicting path attenuation. The best-fit values ofaandbof the relationk = aZ^{b}were deduced for each rain period from the raindrop size measurements, wherekis the attenuation coefficient [dB/km] andZis the reflectivity factor [mm⁶/m³]. The measuredk-Zrelations and the simultaneous radar reflectivity measurements along the beacon path were injected into a computer program for estimating the path attenuation. Predicted attenuations, when compared with the directly measured ones, show generally good correlation on a case-by-case basis and very good agreement statistically after an empirical calibration adjustment is applied to the radar data. A method was also tested for predicting fade statistics at another frequency (e.g., 19 GHz) using simultaneous rain rate and fade distributions (28 GHz) in conjunction with disdrometer data. The predicted distributions showed good agreement with radar-predicted levels. The results demonstrate the utility of using radar in conjunction with disdrometer and rain gauge measurements for predicting fade events, long-term fade distributions, and establishing predictive criteria associated with earth-satellite telecommunications.     

基于有源照射箔条云的速度欺骗干扰方法

提出了基于有源照射箔条云对雷达速度波门进行拖引干扰的复合干扰方法.该方法运用机载电子干扰设备接收、转发敌方雷达发射的信号并照射到箔条云上,箔条云对干扰信号二次辐射,被敌方雷达接收,形成具有和载机相似径向速度的假目标,起到诱骗干扰作用.建立了复合干扰对速度跟踪系统进行干扰的相关模型,并进行了仿真实验,仿真结果表明,利用该方法对敌机测速跟踪系统进行干扰具有可行性.     

Monostatic Reflectivity Measurement of Radar Absorbing Materials at 310 GHz

This paper presents monostatic reflectivity measurements of radar absorbing materials at 310 GHz in a phase-hologram-based compact range. The radar cross-section method was used and the backscattered reflection was measured with horizontal and vertical polarizations in plane-wave conditions. Transmission was also studied. The reflectivity was measured over an incidence angle of 0$^circ$–45$^circ$. The reflectivity of Thomas Keating Terahertz RAM at normal incidence was found to be$-$56 dB—the smallest of the studied materials. The reflectivity of carpet material measured was also below$-$40 dB and it was found to be suitable for use as an absorber. The results are in line with those available from previous studies of reflectivity and complement them with new materials, frequency, and angle information.     

卫星资料在云顶粒子尺度特征分析中的应用

选取NOAA卫星AVHRR通道3(3.55～3.93μm)观测资料,分析云顶粒子的物理性质,并用地面雨量和雷达观测资料对卫星反演分析结果进行验证.分析结果显示通道3反射率小,云顶粒子尺度大时易产生降水.当云层为单一层次时,通道3的反射率小值区与雷达回波区间具有良好的对应关系,证实了在降水过程中卫星分析云顶粒子尺度结果与雷达观测一致.     

Monostatic Reflectivity and Transmittance of Radar Absorbing Materials at 650 GHz

Transmittance and monostatic reflectivity of different radar absorbing materials at 650 GHz are presented. The reflectivity was measured in plane-wave conditions in a radar cross-section (RCS) range with vertical polarization. The lowest reflectivity level (-70 dB) was achieved with commercial absorbers TK THz RAM and Firam-500 with oblique incidence angles. Floor carpets were also studied, and the reflectivity level of those was found to be sufficiently low (from -50 to -60 dB) for use in antenna test ranges. Results agree with earlier studies and indicate the applicability of the RCS method in reflectivity measurements also at 650 GHz.     

Airborne active and passive microwave observations of Super TyphoonFlo

Airborne microwave measurements of precipitation associated with Super Typhoon Flo in the western North Pacific were conducted during September 16-18, 1990. The sensor package aboard the NASA DC-8 aircraft included a dual-frequency precipitation radar at 10 GHz and 34 GHz and a host of radiometers operating at 10 GHz, 18 GHz, 19 GHz, 34 GHz, and 92 GHz, as well as three frequencies near the strong water vapor absorption line of 183.3 GHz. The measurements were made during a few passes over the storm center, and active and passive microwave signatures of the rainbands were detected with a fine spatial resolution. The relationship between the measured brightness temperature and radar-estimated rain rate is examined at the frequencies between 10-92 GHz. At both 34 and 92 GHz this relationship is analyzed with the 10 GHz radar reflectivity factor measured at altitudes above the freezing layer as a further constraint. The results show that frozen hydrometeors strongly scatter radiation at these frequencies, especially at 92 GHz. It was shown from a close examination of both active and passive microwave signatures that a significant scattering of radiation at frequencies 118 GHz occurred in the inner eyewall at altitudes of 3-8 km. This scattering of microwave radiation by hydrometeors in both liquid and frozen forms is discussed under the authors' current understanding of the scattering mechanism     

Hydrometeor classification system using dual-polarization radar measurements: model improvements and in situ verification

A hydrometeor classification system based on a fuzzy logic technique using dual-polarization radar measurements of precipitation is presented. In this study, five dual-polarization radar measurements (namely horizontal reflectivity, differential reflectivity, specific differential phase, correlation coefficient, and linear depolarization ratio) and altitude relating to environmental melting layer are used as input variables of the system. The hydrometeor classification system chooses one of nine different hydrometeor categories as output. The system presented in this paper is a further development of an existing hydrometeor classification system model developed at Colorado State University (CSU). The hydrometeor classification system is evaluated by comparing inferred results from the CSU CHILL Facility dual-polarization radar measurements with the in situ sample data collected by the T-28 aircraft during the Severe Thunderstorm Electrification and Precipitation Study.     

Millimeter wave backscatter from deciduous trees

Measurements of the millimeter-wave backscatter from deciduous (leafed) trees are explained using a simple scattering model. The backscatter from individual leaves was measured in the laboratory and used to justify the use of an average leaf radar cross section when computing the normalized radar cross section (NRCS) of tree canopies. NRCS measurements of canopies show that the direction in which incident radiation impinges on the canopy is an important factor in characterizing radar backscatter. Comparisons of measured NRCS values demonstrate that planophil and erectophil trees can be distinguished based on their backscatter at 215 GHz