Epistemological and methodological issues for the conceptualization,development, and assessment of ICT–TPCK: Advances in technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK)

In this paper, several issues regarding the epistemology of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) are first raised for the purpose of clarifying the construct. Specifically, the transformative and integrative views are juxtaposed for exploring the epistemology of TPCK, and, at the end, the transformative view is adopted concluding that TPCK is a unique body of knowledge that is constructed from the interaction of its individual contributing knowledge bases. Then, ICT–TPCK is introduced as a strand of TPCK, and is described as the ways knowledge about tools and their affordances, pedagogy, content, learners, and context are synthesized into an understanding of how particular topics that are difficult to be understood by learners or difficult to be represented by teachers can be transformed and taught more effectively with technology in ways that signify its added value. One model for the development and another for the assessment of ICT–TPCK are then discussed. Technology Mapping is proposed as a situative methodology for the development of ICT–TPCK, and three forms of assessment, namely, expert assessment, peer assessment, and self-assessment are proposed for assessing teachers’ competencies to teach with technology. The paper also reports on the empirical findings of a study that was undertaken to investigate the impact of the proposed models on student learning within the context of two design tasks in a pre-service primary teacher education course. Repeated measures within-subject effects were tested and the results indicated that ICT–TPCK competency significantly improved over the course of a semester. The results of this study clearly show that the theoretical models proposed herein can positively impact the development of ICT–TPCK. Lastly, these results can be used as baseline data in future studies that may be conducted to further validate or improve the proposed models in different contexts.     

An assessment of student preferences for PowerPoint presentation structure in undergraduate courses

Studies have demonstrated that students prefer PowerPoint and respond favorably to classes when it is used. Few studies have addressed the physical structure of PowerPoint. In this study, students enrolled in several psychology classes on two campuses completed a 36 item questionnaire regarding their preferences for the use of PowerPoint in the classroom. Students preferred the use of key phrase outlines, pictures and graphs, slides to be built line by line, sounds from popular media or that support the pictures or graphics on the slide, color backgrounds, and to have the lights dimmed. It is recommended that professors pay attention to the physical aspects of PowerPoint slides and handouts to further enhance students’ educational experience.     

Don’t do this – Pitfalls in using anti-patterns in teaching human–computer interaction principles

This paper explores the use of design patterns and anti-patterns in teaching human–computer interaction principles. Patterns are increasingly popular and are seen as an efficient knowledge transfer mechanism in many fields, including software development in the field of software engineering, and more recently in the field of human–computer interaction. In software engineering a concerted effort is also being made to identify and document anti-patterns for recording the experiences of expert software developers to caution novices against potential bad practices. It is, however, essential that we ensure compatibility with the learner’s internal knowledge representation and acquisition processes, whether we are attempting to convey the knowledge in the form of a pattern or an anti-pattern. Since teaching with anti-patterns implies using negation, the primary aim of the research reported in this paper is to explore the efficacy of negative, rather than positive, teaching mechanisms. Evidence from theories of mental modelling and knowledge acquisition that highlight significant dangers in the use of anti-patterns to teach novices human–computer interaction principles is presented and supported with empirical findings. We started off by investigating the use of patterns (positive) in teaching, and then carried out experiments to test the use of anti-patterns (negative) in teaching HCI principles. This paper, whilst reporting mainly on our findings with respect to HCI design anti-patterns, will also identify some problems with the structure and use of patterns and anti-patterns in pedagogy.     

Measuring integration of information and communication technology in education: An item response modeling approach

This research describes the development and validation of an instrument to measure integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education. After literature research on definitions of integration of ICT in education, a comparison is made between the classical test theory and the item response modeling approach for the development and validation of a questionnaire. Following the last approach, a construct on integration of ICT is developed, items are generated and an outcome space of Likert type answering categories is defined. The resulting questionnaire has been administered to 933 teacher educators. In this study the collected data are tested for fit to the Rasch model of measurement. It is concluded that the instrument can be used for fundamental measurement of perceived use of ICT for teaching and support of student learning of the reference population, allowing for identification of stages of innovation of ICT integration. We reflect on the critical value of the item response modeling approach and the Rasch measurement model for measurement of integration of ICT in education and discuss some limitations of the study.     

An assessment of the influence of perceived enjoyment and attitude on the intention to use technology among pre-service teachers: A structural equation modeling approach

This study examined the influence of perceived enjoyment on pre-service teachers’ intention to use technology, in addition to re-appraising the role of attitude toward use in the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM; Davis, Bagozzi, &; Warshaw, 1989). One hundred and fifty-three participants in Singapore completed a survey questionnaire measuring their responses to five constructs from a research model that was developed specifically for the study. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) showed that perceived enjoyment was a significant predictor of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and intention to use technology. The findings of this study support the view of Davis et al. (1989) from over 30 years ago that attitude toward use contributes only modestly to the TAM.     

Factors related to pedagogical beliefs of teachers and technology integration

In Taiwan, teachers are expected to integrate technology into instruction with learner-centered beliefs; however, teacher beliefs and practices may differ. The contextual factors influencing this inconsistency must be identified. This study first examines the relationship between pedagogical beliefs of teachers and teaching activities, and further identifies differences between teacher beliefs and teaching activities of Taiwanese teachers in each factor associated with technology integration. In total, 1139 elementary school teachers filled out a set of questionnaires that collected information about teacher pedagogical beliefs, frequent teaching activities, and factors associated with technology integration. Chi-square test results reveal that most Taiwanese teachers held learner-centered belief, but did not integrate constructivist teaching with technology. This analytical result confirms the conflict between teacher beliefs and teaching activities. Two-way analysis of variance results demonstrate that external requests and student test scores were principal considerations for constructivist teachers. Constructivist teaching with technology to enhance student achievement should influence teacher beliefs and practices. The study recommends that future studies conduct a cross-nation comparison to elucidate the factors associated with technology integration in different cultural contexts.     

Personalising learning through the use of technology

In March 2005, the Department for Education and Skills published its e-strategy, Harnessing Technology (DfES, 2005, Harnessing technology: Transforming Learning and Children’s Services). Within this, two of its key objectives were: firstly to transform teaching and learning, and help to improve outcomes for children and young people, through shared ideas, more exciting lessons, and online help for professionals. Secondly, to engage ‘hard to reach’ learners, with special needs support, in more motivating ways of learning, and give them more choice about how and when they learn.     

Schoenfeld’s problem solving theory in a student controlled learning environment

This paper evaluates the effectiveness of a student controlled computer program for high school mathematics based on instruction principles derived from Schoenfeld’s theory of problem solving. The computer program allows students to choose problems and to make use of hints during different episodes of solving problems. Crucial episodes are: analyzing the problem, selecting appropriate mathematical knowledge, making a plan, carrying it out, and checking the answer against the question asked.     

ABRACADABRA in the hands of teachers: The effectiveness of a web-based literacy intervention in grade 1 language arts programs

This study explored how teacher variations in use of a web-technology of known effectiveness, affected growth in literacy. Teachers used ABRACADACABRA (ABRA) (http://grover.concordia.ca/abra/version1/abracadabra.html), in Grade 1 Language Arts classes. Children (N = 60) across three classrooms were exposed to ABRA activities and a control class followed the regular provincial literacy program. Interventions were run by briefly-trained teachers for a total of 16 h. Each teacher chose to use the program in qualitatively distinct ways that corresponded to the first three stages of Sandholtz, Ringstaff, and Dwyer’s (1997) technology integration model, namely: Entry, Adoption and Adaptation. Growth in literacy between pre- and post-test revealed significant differences associated with technology integration style across all measures of literacy and related language skills. The largest and most-widespread effects were evident for the Adaptation group that linked technology content to wider learning themes in the classroom. In terms of overall growth in standardised literacy scores across all six such measures used, Adaptation proved to be 60% more effective than Adoption. Results suggest that explorations of exactly how teachers use technology have important implications for practice as well as for the interpretation of field-based studies of the effectiveness of educational technology.     

First connections: teachers and the National Grid for Learning

The swift introduction of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) into schools is the aim of initiatives involving the teaching profession, parents and pupils, government and commercial interests. Teachers’ attempts to integrate ICT into their classroom practice may be affected by such factors as access to updated technology, appropriate training, and realistic time management. Nevertheless the British governments aim is that all teachers acquire network literacy by the year 2002. Using a linked group of schools, teachers’ opinions and ideas about ICT were gathered as the National Grid for Learning was introduced. Theories of learning as ‘community joining’ were applied in an analysis of the data to create an emerging model of teachers as users of ICT. This model was then used to help formulate the ICT Development Policy of a case study school. On the basis of this empirical evidence, some key factors enabling teachers to work towards network literacy and ‘Adept User’ status are discussed. In conclusion this paper suggests that successful implementation of ICT initiatives generating educationally effective practice is ultimately dependent on the professional development of teachers.     

The impact of laptop-free zones on student performance and attitudes in large lectures

The goal of this study was to determine if laptop use in lecture negatively impacts learning outcomes of surrounding students taking notes on paper. Two sections of a large introductory biology course (>400 students/section) were zoned into a laptop-permitted and a laptop-free area. Two sections in which laptop users could sit anywhere served as the Control. There was no difference in the attendance (∼85%) or percentage of students using laptops (∼29%) between Zoned and Control sections. Academic performance, based on exam points earned, was not significantly different for paper users in Zoned and Control sections indicating laptop use did not impair the overall achievement of surrounding students. However, there was a correlation between exam performance and note taking preference: paper note takers scored significantly higher and laptop users scored significantly lower than predicted by pre-class academic indicators (p < 0.01, paired t-test). The majority of both laptop (64%) and paper users (82%) in the Zoned sections supported a policy restricting laptop use to specific areas. Thus, while we further investigate whether the relationship between laptop use and performance is correlative or causative, zoning is an effective method for accommodating both laptop users and paper note takers in the same lecture hall.     

Evaluating the reliability and impact of a quality assurance system for E-learning courseware

Assuring e-learning quality is of interest worldwide. This paper introduces the methods of e-learning courseware quality assurance (a quality certification system) adopted by the eLQSC (e-Learning Quality Service Centre) in Taiwan. A sequential/explanatory design with a mixed methodology was used to gather research data and conduct data analyses. Sixty-seven e-learning courseware applications were evaluated using the e-Learning Courseware Quality Checklist (eLCQC). Analyses of item difficulty, item discrimination and generalizability indicated that the eLCQC provides high-quality evaluations. After participating in the certification process, the e-learning producers reported having more confidence in enhancing e-learning courseware quality. The certification experience also helped the producers to change their previous design concepts about e-learning courseware and to develop new concepts; further, their increased confidence about courseware design also enhanced their confidence in marketing courseware.     

Modeling primary school pre-service teachers’ Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) for meaningful learning with information and communication technology (ICT)

Within the field of educational technology, Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) has been theorized as a seven-factor construct to describe teacher’s integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in their teaching. However, this framework has yet to be successfully validated through survey instruments. This paper examines the construct validity of a TPACK survey that was contextualized for the pedagogical approaches employed in a 12-week ICT course designed with reference to the TPACK framework for Singaporean primary school pre-service teachers. Using this framework, the researchers were able to uncover five of the seven TPACK constructs which were a better model fit as compared with several extant studies of TPACK surveys. Using these results, pre and post-course structural equation models were constructed to explain the relationships amongst the different constructs of teachers’ TPACK perceptions. It was found that pedagogical knowledge had a direct impact on TPACK at the beginning of the course. As teachers made connections between their technological knowledge and pedagogical knowledge to form technological pedagogical knowledge during the course, the direct relation between pedagogical knowledge and TPACK became insignificant where as the relations between pedagogical knowledge and technological pedagogical knowledge, and technological pedagogical knowledge and TPACK were strengthened. The comparison between the pre and post-course models also revealed that the pre-service teachers’ perceived relations between content knowledge and TPACK changes from insignificant to significant. The implications of these findings and suggestions to improve the construct validation of the TPACK framework are discussed in this paper.     

The timing of online lecture slide availability and its effect on attendance, participation, and exam performance

The use of PowerPoint slides has become an almost ubiquitous practice in university classrooms, however little research has examined whether the timing of lecture slide availability to students (either before or after lecture) affects classroom behaviour or exam performance. Using a 2 (slide availability condition) × 2 (course type) between-subjects design, the present study examined lecture slide availability differences in attendance, participation, and exam performance in two courses – Research Methods and Cognitive Development – taught in both the Fall and Winter semesters. For each type of course, lecture slides were made available on the course website before lecture in one semester and after lecture in the other semester. Course material was held constant across semesters. Results showed that mean attendance was higher when slides were available before lecture, but only for the type of course that did not include attendance points as part of students’ final grades. For students who participated in class, participation was more frequent when slides were available before lecture. No significant difference in exam performance was found between lecture slide availability conditions, however. These findings suggest that making lecture slides available to students before lecture may lead to better overall attendance and participation, but exam performance is determined by more than just whether or not students have lecture slides available for their note-taking.     

EFL learners’ use of online reading strategies and comprehension of texts: An exploratory study

This study investigated EFL learners’ online reading strategies and the effects of strategy use on comprehension. To fulfill the purposes of this study, a Web-based reading program, English Reading Online, was created. Thirty applied English majors, divided into a high group and a low group based on their proficiency levels, were asked to read four authentic online texts; two were appropriate to the students’ level of proficiency, and two were more difficult. Results from data analysis showed that the use of support strategies dominated the strategy use and contributed to most of the comprehension gains, but an exclusive dependence on support strategies did not successfully predict the increase in scores on main ideas and details when the students were reading more challenging texts. On the whole, the use of global strategies significantly contributed to better comprehension, especially for low proficiency students.     

Computer games development experience and appreciative learning approach for creative process enhancement

Nurturing children into thinking creatively needs to take account of what interest them. Therefore, the study conducted engaged students with computer games development as it corresponded with the young generation’s habits and interests. This was done with the purpose to enhance the creative process experienced by students. It involved 69 Malaysian form one (grade seven) students, aged 13–14 year-old. Appreciative learning approach, which consisted of discover, dream, design and destiny stages, was applied in treatment group whiles control group applied self-paced learning, followed by do-it-yourself session. Findings showed students in treatment group gained accelerated mean score in creative process experienced on the second week and stabilized thereafter for the following weeks. These mean scores were significantly higher than control group, throughout the study. Although students in control group exhibited significantly lower mean scores in creative process, yet these mean scores gradually getting higher and higher each week significantly. As a conclusion, appreciative learning approach contributes significantly on the level of creative process experienced by students. However, creative process experienced did not happen in a clear-cut order of inspiration, clarification, evaluation, distillation, incubation, perspiration (ICEDIP). In addition, it is not true that without appreciative learning approach, students will not experience any creative process. Creative process happens all the time when the mind is active but the level can be accelerated by appropriate pedagogical approach. Caution is warranted, as this article is just part of the action research being carried out in applying appreciative learning approach as a teaching practice in computer games development class.