cAMP-dependent phosphorylation of the cardiac L-type Ca channel: a missing link?

Cardiac inotropic effects of beta adrenergic agonists occur mainly through an increase in L-type (class C) calcium channel activity. This response has been attributed to phosphorylation of the L-type Ca channel, or a closely associated protein, by the cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA). Among the three subunits forming the cardiac L-type Ca channel (alpha 1, beta and alpha 2-delta), biochemical studies have revealed that two subunits, alpha 1 and beta, are phosphorylated in vitro by protein kinase A, the alpha 1 subunit being the primary target. However, attempts to reconstitute the cAMP-dependent regulation of the expressed class C Ca channel, either in Xenopus oocytes or in cell lines, have provided contradictory results. We were unable to detect cAMP-dependent modulation of class C alpha 1 subunit Ca channels expressed in Xenopus oocytes, even when coinjected with auxiliary subunits beta and alpha 2-delta. Nevertheless, activity of Ca channels recorded from cardiac-mRNA injected oocytes was potentiated by injection of cAMP or PKA, even when expression of the beta subunit was suppressed using antisense oligonucleotide. Taken together, these results indicate that cAMP-dependent regulation does not exclusively involve the alpha 1 and the beta subunits of the Ca channel and suggest that unidentified protein(s), expressed in cardiac tissue, are most likely necessary.     

Run-down of L-type Ca2+ channels occurs on the alpha 1 subunit

Run-down of L-type Ca2+ channels in CHO cells stably expressing alpha 1c, alpha 1c beta 1a, or alpha 1c beta 1a alpha 2 delta gamma subunits was studied using the patch-clamp technique (single channel recording). The channel activity (NPo) of alpha 1c channels was increased 4- and 8-fold by coexpression with beta 1a and beta 1a alpha 2 delta gamma, respectively. When membranes containing channels composed of different subunits were excised into basic internal solution, the channel activity exhibited run-down, the time-course of which was independent of the subunit composition. The run-down was restored by the application of calpastatin (or calpastatin contained in cytoplasmic P-fraction) + H-fraction (a high molecular mass fraction of bovine cardiac cytoplasm) + 3 mM ATP, which has been shown to reverse the run-down in native Ca2+ channels in the guinea-pig heart. The restoration level was 64.7, 63.5, and 66.4% for channels composed of alpha 1c, alpha 1c beta 1a, and alpha 1c beta 1a alpha 2 delta gamma, respectively, and was thus also independent of the subunit composition. We conclude that run-down of L-type Ca2+ channels occurs via the alpha 1 subunit and that the cytoplasmic factors maintaining Ca2+ channel activity act on the alpha 1 subunit.     

Complexes of the alpha1C and beta subunits generate the necessary signal for membrane targeting of class C L-type calcium channels

In the present study, we investigated the role of channel subunits in the membrane targeting of voltage-dependent L-type calcium channel complexes. We co-expressed the calcium channel pore-forming alpha1C subunit with different accessory beta subunits in HEK-tsA201 cells and examined the subcellular localization of the channel subunits by immunohistochemistry using confocal microscopy and whole-cell radioligand binding studies. While the pore-forming alpha1C subunit exhibited perinuclear staining when expressed alone, and several of the wild-type and mutant beta subunits also exhibited intracellular staining, co-expression of the alpha1C subunit with either the wild-type beta2a subunit, a palmitoylation-deficient beta2a(C3S/C4S) mutant or three other nonpalmitoylated beta isoforms (beta1b, beta3, and beta4 subunits) resulted in the redistribution of both the alpha1C and beta subunits into clusters along the cell surface. Furthermore, the redistribution of calcium channel complexes to the plasma membrane was observed when alpha1C was co-expressed with an N- and C-terminal truncated mutant beta2a containing only the central conserved regions. However, when the alpha1C subunit was co-expressed with an alpha1 beta interaction-deficient mutant, beta2aBID-, we did not observe formation of the channels at the plasma membrane. In addition, an Src homology 3 motif mutant of beta2a that was unable to interact with the alpha1C subunit also failed to target channel complexes to the plasma membrane. Interestingly, co-expression of the pore-forming alpha1C subunit with the largely peripheral accessory alpha2 delta subunit was ineffective in recruiting alpha1C to the plasma membrane, while co-distribution of all three subunits was observed when beta2a was co-expressed with the alpha1C and alpha2 delta subunits. Taken together, our results suggested that the signal necessary for correct plasma membrane targeting of the class C L-type calcium channel complexes is generated as a result of a functional interaction between the alpha1 and beta subunits.     

Differential effects of Ca2+ channel beta1a and beta2a subunits on complex formation with alpha1S and on current expression in tsA201 cells

To study the interactions of the alpha1S subunit of the skeletal muscle L-type Ca2+ channel with the skeletal beta1a and the cardiac beta2a, these subunits were expressed alone or in combination in tsA201 cells. Immunofluorescence- and green fluorescent protein-labeling showed that, when expressed alone, beta1a was diffusely distributed throughout the cytoplasm, beta2a was localized in the plasma membrane, and alpha1S was concentrated in a tubular/reticular membrane system, presumably the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Upon coexpression with alpha1S, beta1a became colocalized with alpha1S in the ER. Upon coexpression with beta2a, alpha1S redistributed to the plasma membrane, where it aggregated in large clusters. Coexpression of alpha1S with beta1a but not with beta2a increased the frequency at which cells expressed L-type currents. A point mutation (alpha1S-Y366S) or deletion (alpha1S-Delta351-380) in the beta interaction domain of alpha1S blocked both translocation of beta1a to the ER and beta2a-induced translocation of the alpha1S mutants to the plasma membrane. However, the point mutation did not interfere with beta1a-induced current stimulation. Thus, beta1a and beta2a are differentially distributed in tsA201 cells and upon coexpression with alpha1S, form alpha1S. beta complexes in different cellular compartments. Complex formation but not current stimulation requires the intact beta interaction domain in the I-II cytoplasmic loop of alpha1S.     

The possible function of stone ramparts at the nest entrance of the blackstart

The origin of Ibetanull, the Ca2+ current of myotubes from mice lacking the skeletal dihydropyridine receptor (DHPR) beta1a subunit, was investigated. The density of Ibetanull was similar to that of Idys, the Ca2+ current of myotubes from dysgenic mice lacking the skeletal DHPR alpha1S subunit (-0.6 +/- 0.1 and -0.7 +/- 0.1 pA/pF, respectively). However, Ibetanull activated at significantly more positive potentials. The midpoints of the GCa-V curves were 16.3 +/- 1.1 mV and 11.7 +/- 1.0 mV for Ibetanull and Idys, respectively. Ibetanull activated significantly more slowly than Idys. At +30 mV, the activation time constant for Ibetanull was 26 +/- 3 ms, and that for Idys was 7 +/- 1 ms. The unitary current of normal L-type and beta1-null Ca2+ channels estimated from the mean variance relationship at +20 mV in 10 mM external Ca2+ was 22 +/- 4 fA and 43 +/- 7 fA, respectively. Both values were significantly smaller than the single-channel current estimated for dysgenic Ca2+ channels, which was 84 +/- 9 fA under the same conditions. Ibetanull and Idys have different gating and permeation characteristics, suggesting that the bulk of the DHPR alpha1 subunits underlying these currents are different. Ibetanull is suggested to originate primarily from Ca2+ channels with a DHPR alpha1S subunit. Dysgenic Ca2+ channels may be a minor component of this current. The expression of DHPR alpha1S in beta1-null myotubes and its absence in dysgenic myotubes was confirmed by immunofluorescence labeling of cells.     

Enhancement of recombinant gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor currents by chronic activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase

alpha 1, beta 1, and gamma 2S gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type A receptor (GABAR) subunit cDNAs were transiently expressed in derivative cell lines of mouse L929 fibroblasts, which possessed different levels of the catalytic subunit of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). These cell lines included L929 (intermediate levels of kinase), C alpha 12 (elevated levels of kinase), and RAB10 (low levels of kinase) cells. Pharmacological analysis of GABA-evoked whole-cell currents revealed that, compared with expression in L929 and RAB10 cells, expression of alpha 1 beta 1 gamma 2S GABARs in C alpha 12 cells produced a selective enhancement of single whole-cell current amplitudes. No other pharmacological properties (Hill slope, EC50, or diazepam sensitivity) of the expressed alpha 1 beta 1 gamma 2S GABARs were modified. The GABAR current enhancement in C alpha 12 cells was blocked by substitution of a beta 1 subunit mutated at the PKA consensus phosphorylation site, Ser409 [beta 1(S409A)], for the wild-type beta subunit. Interestingly, enhancement was specific for GABARs containing all three subunits, because it was not seen after expression of alpha 1 beta 1 or alpha 1 beta 1 (S409A) GABAR subunit combinations. Single-channel conductance and gating properties were not different for alpha 1 beta 1 gamma 2S or alpha 1 beta 1 (S409A) gamma 2S GABARs expressed in each cell line, suggesting that PKA did not enhance whole-cell currents by altering these properties of GABARs. These results suggested that unlike acute application of PKA, which has been shown to produce a decrease in GABAR current, chronic elevation of PKA activity can result in enhancement of GABAR currents. More importantly, this effect occurred only with GABARs composed of alpha 1 beta 1 gamma 2S subunits and not alpha 1 beta 1 subunits and was mediated by a single amino acid residue (Ser409) of the beta 1 subunit.     

The alpha 1E calcium channel exhibits permeation properties similar to low-voltage-activated calcium channels

The physiological and pharmacological properties of the alpha 1E calcium (Ca) channel subtype do not exactly match any of the established categories described for native neuronal Ca currents. Many of the key diagnostic features used to assign cloned Ca channels to their native counterparts, however, are dependent on a number of factors, including cellular environment, beta subunit coexpression, and modulation by second messengers and G-proteins. Here, by examining the intrinsic pore characteristics of a family of transiently expressed neuronal Ca channels, we demonstrate that the permeation properties of alpha 1E closely resemble those described for a subset of low-threshold Ca channels. The alpha 1A (P-/Q-type), alpha 1B (N-type), and alpha 1C (L-type) high-threshold Ca channels all exhibit larger whole-cell currents with barium (Ba) as the charge carrier as compared with Ca or strontium (Sr). In contrast, macroscopic alpha 1E currents are largest in Sr, followed by Ca and then Ba. The unique permeation properties of alpha 1E are maintained at the single-channel level, are independent of the nature of the expression system, and are not affected by coexpression of alpha 2 and beta subunits. Overall, the permeation characteristics of alpha 1E are distinct from those described for R-type currents and share some similarities with native low-threshold Ca channels.     

Structures and functions of calcium channel beta subunits

Calcium channel beta subunits have profound effects on how alpha1 subunits perform. In this article we summarize our present knowledge of the primary structures of beta subunits as deduced from cDNAs and illustrate their different properties. Upon co-expression with alpha1 subunits, the effects of beta subunits vary somewhat between L-type and non-L-type channels mostly because the two types of channels have different responses to voltage which are affected by beta subunits, such as long-lasting prepulse facilitation of alpha1C (absent in alpha1E) and inhibition by G protein betagamma dimer of alpha1E, absent in alpha1C. One beta subunit, a brain beta2a splice variant that is palmitoylated, has several effects not seen with any of the others, and these are due to palmitoylation. We also illustrate the finding that functional expression of alpha1 in oocytes requires a beta subunit even if the final channel shows no evidence for its presence. We propose two structural models for Ca2+ channels to account for "alpha1 alone" channels seen in cells with limited beta subunit expression. In one model, beta dissociates from the mature alpha1 after proper folding and membrane insertion. Regulated channels seen upon co-expression of high levels of beta would then have subunit composition alpha1beta. In the other model, the "chaperoning" beta remains associated with the mature channel and "alpha1 alone" channels would in fact be alpha1beta channels. Upon co-expression of high levels of beta the regulated channels would have composition [alpha1beta]beta.     

Cloning and functional expression of a voltage-gated calcium channel alpha1 subunit from jellyfish

Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in vertebrates comprise at least seven molecular subtypes, each of which produces a current with distinct kinetics and pharmacology. Although several invertebrate Ca2+ channel alpha1 subunits have also been cloned, their functional characteristics remain unclear, as heterologous expression of a full-length invertebrate channel has not previously been reported. We have cloned a cDNA encoding the alpha1 subunit of a voltage-gated Ca2+ channel from the scyphozoan jellyfish Cyanea capillata, one of the earliest existing organisms to possess neural and muscle tissue. The deduced amino acid sequence of this subunit, named CyCaalpha1, is more similar to vertebrate L-type channels (alpha1S, alpha1C, and alpha1D) than to non-L-type channels (alpha1A, alpha1B, and alpha1E) or low voltage-activated channels (alpha1G). Expression of CyCaalpha1 in Xenopus oocytes produces a high voltage-activated Ca2+ current that, unlike vertebrate L-type currents, is only weakly sensitive to 1,4-dihydropyridine or phenylalkylamine Ca2+ channel blockers and is not potentiated by the agonist S(-)-BayK 8644. In addition, the channel is less permeable to Ba2+ than to Ca2+ and is more permeable to Sr2+. CyCaalpha1 thus represents an ancestral L-type alpha1 subunit with significant functional differences from mammalian L-type channels.     

The Ca2+ channel beta3 subunit differentially modulates G-protein sensitivity of alpha1A and alpha1B Ca2+ channels

We have shown previously that the Ca2+ channel beta3 subunit is capable of modulating tonic G-protein inhibition of alpha1A and alpha1B Ca2+ channels expressed in oocytes. Here we determine the modulatory effect of the Ca2+ channel beta3 subunit on M2 muscarinic receptor-activated G-protein inhibition and whether the beta3 subunit modulates the G-protein sensitivity of alpha1A and alpha1B currents equivalently. To compare the relative inhibition by muscarinic activation, we have used successive ACh applications to remove the large tonic inhibition of these channels. We show that the resulting rebound potentiation results entirely from the loss of tonic G-protein inhibition; although the currents are temporarily relieved of tonic inhibition, they are still capable of undergoing inhibition through the muscarinic pathway. Using this rebound protocol, we demonstrate that the inhibition of peak current amplitude produced by M2 receptor activation is similar for alpha1A and alpha1B calcium currents. However, the contribution of the voltage-dependent component of inhibition, characterized by reduced inhibition at very depolarized voltage steps and the relief of inhibition by depolarizing prepulses, was slightly greater for the alpha1B current than for the alpha1A current. After co-expression of the beta3 subunit, the sensitivity to M2 receptor-induced G-protein inhibition was reduced for both alpha1A and alpha1B currents; however, the reduction was significantly greater for alpha1A currents. Additionally, the difference in the voltage dependence of inhibition of alpha1A and alpha1B currents was heightened after co-expression of the Ca2+ channel beta3 subunit. Such differential modulation of sensitivity to G-protein modulation may be important for fine tuning release in neurons that contain both of these Ca2+ channels.     

Investigation of the relationship between farrowing environment, sex steroid concentrations and maternal aggression in gilts

The involvement of cAMP-dependent phosphorylation sites in establishing the basal activity of cardiac L-type Ca2+ channels was studied in HEK 293 cells transiently cotransfected with mutants of the human cardiac alpha1 and accessory subunits. Systematic individual or combined elimination of high consensus protein kinase A (PKA) sites, by serine to alanine substitutions at the amino and carboxyl termini of the alpha1 subunit, resulted in Ca2+ channel currents indistinguishable from those of wild type channels. Dihydropyridine (DHP)-binding characteristics were also unaltered. To explore the possible involvement of nonconsensus sites, deletion mutants were used. Carboxyl-terminal truncations of the alpha1 subunit distal to residue 1597 resulted in increased channel expression and current amplitudes. Modulation of PKA activity in cells transfected with the wild type channel or any of the mutants did not alter Ca2+ channel functions suggesting that cardiac Ca2+ channels expressed in these cells behave, in terms of lack of PKA control, like Ca2+ channels of smooth muscle cells.     

Identification and differential subcellular localization of the neuronal class C and class D L-type calcium channel alpha 1 subunits

To identify and localize the protein products of genes encoding distinct L-type calcium channels in central neurons, anti-peptide antibodies specific for the class C and class D alpha 1 subunits were produced. Anti-CNC1 directed against class C immunoprecipitated 75% of the L-type channels solubilized from rat cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Anti-CND1 directed against class D immunoprecipitated only 20% of the L-type calcium channels. Immunoblotting revealed two size forms of the class C L-type alpha 1 subunit, LC1 and LC2, and two size forms of the class D L-type alpha 1 subunit, LD1 and LD2. The larger isoforms had apparent molecular masses of approximately 200-210 kD while the smaller isoforms were 180-190 kD, as estimated from electrophoresis in gels polymerized from 5% acrylamide. Immunocytochemical studies using CNC1 and CND1 antibodies revealed that the alpha 1 subunits of both L-type calcium channel subtypes are localized mainly in neuronal cell bodies and proximal dendrites. Relatively dense labeling was observed at the base of major dendrites in many neurons. Staining in more distal dendritic regions was faint or undetectable with CND1, while a more significant level of staining of distal dendrites was observed with CNC1, particularly in the dentate gyrus and the CA2 and CA3 areas of the hippocampus. Class C calcium channels were concentrated in clusters, while class D calcium channels were generally distributed in the cell surface membrane of cell bodies and proximal dendrites. Our results demonstrate multiple size forms and differential localization of two subtypes of L-type calcium channels in the cell bodies and proximal dendrites of central neurons. The differential localization and multiple size forms may allow these two channel subtypes to participate in distinct aspects of electrical signal integration and intracellular calcium signaling in neuronal cell bodies. The preferential localization of these calcium channels in cell bodies and proximal dendrites implies their involvement in regulation of calcium-dependent functions occurring in those cellular compartments such as protein phosphorylation, enzyme activity, and gene expression.     

Protein kinase C-mediated regulation of L-type Ca channels from skeletal muscle requires phosphorylation of the alpha 1 subunit

Dihydropyridine-sensitive, L-type Ca channels are hetero-oligomeric proteins that are modulated in certain cell types by protein kinase C (PKC). In native skeletal muscle membranes, PKC phosphorylates the alpha 1 and beta subunits of these Ca channels and modulates channel activity. However, it is unknown if phosphorylation of both subunits is necessary for PKC-mediated channel regulation. Here we report that stoichiometric phosphorylation of the alpha 1 subunit was required for activation of these Ca channels by PKC, while PKC-mediated phosphorylation of the beta subunit alone did not modify channel activity. Furthermore, reversal of the functional effects of PKC by protein phosphatase-1c was quantitatively correlated with dephosphorylation of the alpha 1 subunit.     

Creating an education model for cardiac patients

gamma-Aminobutyric acidA (GABA(A)) gated chloride ion channels were expressed from human recombinant cDNA using the baculovirus/Sf-9 insect cell expression system. The electrophysiological effects in whole-cell currents of 5-(4-piperidyl) isoxazol-3-ol (4-PIOL), a GABA(A) receptor partial agonist, were investigated on GABA(A) receptor complexes of alpha1beta2gamma2S subunits as well as a slightly modified construct of alpha1(valine 121)beta2gamma2S subunits. Here we report that (1)4-PIOL induces an inward whole-cell current in a concentration-dependent manner in both alpha1(val 121)beta2gamma2S and alpha1(ile 121)beta2gamma2S receptor subunit combinations. (2) The 4-PIOL induced whole-cell currents were more pronounced in alpha1(val 121)beta2gamma2S than in alpha1(ile 121)beta2gamma2S receptor subunit combinations. (3) 4-PIOL inhibited GABA-induced responses on alpha1(ile 121)beta2gamma2S and alpha1(val 121)beta2gamma2S receptor combinations with similar potency.     

Functional properties of recombinant GABA(A) receptors composed of single or multiple beta subunit subtypes

GABA(A) receptor (GABAR) isoforms in the central nervous system are composed of combinations of alpha(1-6), beta(1-4), gamma(1-4), delta(1) and epsilon(1) subunit subtypes arranged in a pentamer. Many regions of the brain express high levels of mRNA encoding several different subunits and even multiple subunit subtypes. The stoichiometry of GABAR isoforms is unclear, and the number and identity of individual subunit subtypes that are coassembled remain uncertain. To examine the role of beta subunit subtypes in the functional properties of GABARS and to determine whether multiple beta subtypes can be coassembled in functional GABARs, plasmids containing cDNAs encoding rat beta1 and/or beta3, alpha5 and gamma2L subtypes were cotransfected into L929 fibroblasts. The properties of the expressed receptor populations were determined using whole-cell and single-channel recording techniques. The alpha5beta1gamma2L isoform was less sensitive to GABA than the alpha5beta3gamma2L isoform. alpha5beta1gamma2L isoform currents were also insensitive to the allosteric modulator loreclezole, while alpha5beta3gamma2L isoform currents were strongly potentiated by loreclezole. Fibroblasts transfected with plasmids containing cDNAs for both beta1 and beta3 subtypes along with alpha5 and gamma2L subtypes produced a receptor population with an intermediate sensitivity to GABA which was insensitive to loreclezole. These results suggest that functional GABARs can be formed that contain two different beta1 subunit subtypes with properties different from receptors that contain only a single beta1 subtype and that the beta1 subunit subtypes influence the response of GABARs to GABA and to the allosteric modulator loreclezole.     

Positive modulation of human gamma-aminobutyric acid type A and glycine receptors by the inhalation anesthetic isoflurane

The interactions of the inhalation anesthetic agent isoflurane with ligand-gated chloride channels were studied using transient expression of recombinant human receptors in a mammalian cell line. Isoflurane enhanced gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-activated chloride currents in cells that expressed heteromeric GABAA receptors consisting of combinations of alpha 1 or alpha 2, beta 1, and gamma 2 subunits and in cells that expressed receptors consisting of combinations of only alpha and beta subunits. Receptors consisting of alpha 2 and gamma 2 subunits were poorly expressed but were sensitive to isoflurane. Receptors consisting of beta 1 and gamma 2 subunits were not expressed. Isoflurane also enhanced glycine-activated chloride currents through homomeric alpha glycine receptors but did not enhance GABA currents in cells expressing homomeric rho 1 receptors. These results show that not all ligand-gated chloride channel receptors are sensitive to isoflurane and, therefore, that the anesthetic interacts with specific structural determinants of these ion channel proteins.