Nanostructuring of metals by severe plastic deformation for advanced properties

Despite rosy prospects, the use of nanostructured metals and alloys as advanced structural and functional materials has remained controversial until recently. Only in recent years has a breakthrough been outlined in this area, associated both with development of new routes for the fabrication of bulk nanostructured materials and with investigation of the fundamental mechanisms that lead to the new properties of these materials. Although a deep understanding of these mechanisms is still a topic of basic research, pilot commercial products for medicine and microdevices are coming within reach of the market. This progress article discusses new concepts and principles of using severe plastic deformation (SPD) to fabricate bulk nanostructured metals with advanced properties. Special emphasis is laid on the relationship between microstructural features and properties, as well as the first applications of SPD-produced nanomaterials.     

Unique mechanical properties of nanostructured metals

Recently, it becomes possible to fabricate bulk metals having ultrafine grained or nanocrystalline structures of which grain size is in nano-meter dimensions. One of the promising ways to realize bulk nanostructured metals is severe plastic deformation (SPD) above logarithmic equivalent strain of 4. We have developed an original SPD process, named Accumulative Roll Bonding (ARB) using rolling deformation in principle, and have succeeded in fabricating bulk nanostructured sheets of various kinds of metals and alloys. The ARB process and the nanostructured metals fabricated by the ARB are introduced in this paper. The nanostructured metals sometimes perform quite unique mechanical properties, that is rather surprising compared with conventionally coarse grained materials. The unique properties seem to be attributed to the characteristic structures of the nano-metals full of grain boundaries.     

Production, properties and application prospects of bulk nanostructured materials

Fundamental mechanisms of grain refinement during equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) and multiple isothermal forging (MIF) are analyzed and compared. Based on this analysis, deformation methods of nanostructuring are classified into severe plastic deformation and mild plastic deformation methods. It is demonstrated that MIF is a versatile method allowing for a production of bulk and sheet nanostructured semi-products with grain size down to 50 nm and applicable to various metals and alloys. Novel mechanical properties of bulk nanostructured materials produced by this method are presented. The ways of their structural and functional applications are discussed.     

制备块体纳米/超细晶材料的大塑性变形技术

综述了采用SPD技术制备块体超细晶(UFG)和纳米晶(NC)材料的几种新方法，如等通道角挤压、高压扭转、多向锻造、多向压缩、板条马氏体冷轧法、累积轧焊法、冷拔、反复弯曲平直法等，分析了采用这些工艺制备的块体纳米材料所共有的微观组织特点。着重阐述了SPD技术的研究进展。     

强塑性变形在铝合金中的研究进展

在过去20年中,强塑性变形技术作为制备超细晶金属及其合金的一种方法被广泛研究.主要介绍了强变形技术在铝合金中的研究进展,特别是对铝合金晶粒大小、晶界、晶体织构及第二相等微观组织参数,强度、塑性、疲劳、腐蚀及超塑性等力学性能的影响.     

Review of principles and methods of severe plastic deformation for producing ultrafine-grained tubes

Severe plastic deformation (SPD) is known to be the best method for producing bulk ultrafine-grained and nanostructured materials with excellent properties. Different SPD methods were developed that are suitable for sheet and bulk solid materials. During the past decade, efforts have been made to create effective SPD processes suitable for producing cylindrical tubes. In this paper, we review SPD processes intended to produce ultrafine-grained and nanostructured tubes, and their effects on material properties. The paper will focus on introduction of the tube SPD processes, and then comparison of them based on their advantages and disadvantages from the viewpoints of processing and properties.     

深度塑性变形法的研究现状和前景

深度塑性变形加工与传统变形方法相比具有很大的优点,可得到超细晶金属和合金,其微观组织结构和性能也发生很大的变化.通过介绍累积轧合法、等通道角挤压法和高压扭转法等3种目前最主要的深度塑性变形方法,分析了深度塑性变形法的特点和现状,并对其未来进行了展望.     

Tensile behavior of bulk nanostructured and ultrafine grained aluminum alloys

In the present study, data on tensile behavior of bulk nanostructured aluminum alloys processed via consolidation of mechanically milled powders and severe plastic deformation are analyzed. High strength and low strain hardening were observed in bulk nanostructured and ultrafine-grained Al alloys. The ductility of aluminum alloys decreases with decreasing grain size. The high amount of intercrystalline components may have an influence on tensile properties of bulk nanostructured materials when grain sizes are less than 100 nm. The high strength in bulk nanostructured Al-Mg alloy may be attributed to contributions arising from grain size strengthening, the presence of high dislocation densities, Orowan strengthening, precipitation hardening and solid-solution hardening. The large and sudden stress drops in the stress-strain curves of cryomilled Al alloys are most probably indicative of the dislocation annihilation in the vicinity of or breakaway from the strong pinning role of dispersoids.     

Unusual super-ductility at room temperature in an ultrafine-grained aluminum alloy

Processing by severe plastic deformation (SPD) typically increases the strength of metals and alloys drastically by decreasing their grain size into the submicrometer or nanometer range but the ductility of such materials remains typically low. This report describes the first demonstration that it is possible to increase the room temperature ductility of aluminum-based alloys processed by SPD and to attain elongations to failure of >150% while retaining the enhanced strength. This unique combination of properties is due to the occurrence of grain boundary sliding at room temperature. The sliding was obviously achieved by introducing a grain boundary wetting of the aluminum/aluminum grain boundaries.     

Commercialization of Nanostructured Metals Produced by Severe Plastic Deformation Processing

The promise of nanotechnology is increasingly being realized as governments, universities, public and private research laboratories, and the various industrial sectors devote resources to this emerging area. Estimates for the economic impact of nanotechnology on existing global markets exceed 700 billion by the year 2008. Nanomaterials are projected to be one of the earliest components of nanotechnology to appear in commercial applications. Amongst the emerging new nanomaterials, bulk nanostructured metals produced by severe plastic deformation (SPD) have shown promise in a wide range of application areas. In this paper, we overview developments in severe plastic deformation technology, emphasizing progress since the international workshop “Investigations and Applications of Severe Plastic Deformation” held 2–8 August 1999 in Moscow, Russia. Then, we overview some of principal areas of application for SPD metals and alloys.     

Dynamic Plastic Deformation （DPD）： A Novel Technique for Synthesizing Bulk Nanostructured Metals

While some superior properties of nanostructured materials （with structural scales below 100 nm） have attracted numerous interests of material scientists, technique development for synthesizing nanostructured metals and alloys in 3-dimensional （3D） bulk forms is still challenging despite of extensive investigations over decades. Here we report a novel synthesis technique for bulk nanostructured metals based on plastic deformation at high Zener-Hollomon parameters （high strain rates or low temperatures）, i.e., dynamic plastic deformation （DPD）. The basic concept behind this approach will be addressed together with a few examples to demonstrate the capability and characteristics of this method. Perspectives and future developments of this technique will be highlighted.     

Recycling of titanium machining chips by severe plastic deformation consolidation

It has been demonstrated that severe plastic deformation (SPD) can be used to consolidate particles of a wide range of sizes from nano to micro into fully dense bulk material with good mechanical properties. SPD consolidation allows processing to be conducted at much lower temperatures and is therefore suitable for particles with highly metastable structures such as nanocrystalline. It is especially useful in the fabrication of multiphase materials including metal matrix nanocomposites. In this investigation, SPD consolidation was applied to recycle Ti machining chips. In particular, the as-received chips were consolidated by equal channel angular pressing at temperatures between 400 and 600 °C with the application of a back pressure from 50 to 200 MPa. Fully dense bulk Ti with fine grain sizes was produced, possessing strength comparable or higher than that of commercially pure wrought Ti. It is concluded that SPD consolidation is a promising method for recycling and value-adding of Ti chips.     

Severe plastic deformation (SPD) and nanostructured materials by machining

Large plastic strains between 1 and 15 can be imposed in chips formed by plane-strain (2-D) machining of metals and alloys. This approach has been used to examine microstructure changes induced by large strain deformation in model systems—copper and its alloys, precipitation-hardenable aluminum alloys, high-strength materials such as titanium, Inconel 718 and 52100 steel, and an amorphous alloy. It is shown that materials with average grain sizes in the range of 60 nm–1 μm can be created by varying the parameters of machining, which in turn affects the deformation processes. Furthermore, a switch-over from an elongated subgrain microstructure to an equi-axed nanocrystalline microstructure, with a preponderance of large-angle grain boundaries, has been demonstrated at the higher levels of strain in several of these materials. This switch-over can be readily controlled by varying the deformation conditions. Dynamic recrystallization has been demonstrated in select material systems under particular conditions of strain and temperature. This study may be seen as providing an important bridge between furthering the understanding of microstructural refinement by large strain deformation and the practical utilization of nanostructured materials in structural and mechanical applications. Conventional plane-strain machining has been shown to be a viable SPD method for examining the underlying processes of very large strain deformation.     

Issues and strategies in composite fabrication via friction stir processing: A review

Friction stir processing (FSP) is an expeditiously emerging novel technique involving exterior layer modification, which enables one to successfully fabricate surface composites (SCs) as well as bulk composites of the metal matrix. SCs constitute an exclusive class of composites which exhibit improved surface properties while retaining the bulk properties unaltered. During initiative years, FSP was employed in development of SCs of light metal alloys like aluminum. But, nowadays, it has gained a shining role in the field of SC fabrication of various nonferrous alloys like aluminum, magnesium, copper, and even ferrous metals like steel etc. This article reviews the current trends, various issues, and strategies used to enhance the efficiency of the fabrication process of SCs. Factors involved in the process of SC fabrication are discussed and classified with a new approach. Also, variation of microstructural and mechanical characteristics with these factors is reviewed. In addition to a brief presentation on the interaction between various inputs and their effects on properties, a summary of literature on SC fabrication for different metals is tabulated with prominent results. Subsequently, shortfalls and future perspectives of FSP on SC fabrication domain are discussed.     

Structure and properties of bulk nanostructured alloys synthesized by flux-melting

Nanomaterials can easily be prepared as thin films and powders, but are much harder to prepare in bulk form. Nanostructured materials are prepared mainly by consolidation, electrodeposition, and deformation. These processing techniques have problems such as porosity, contamination, high cost, and limitations in refining the grain size. Since most bulk engineering metals are initially prepared by casting, we developed a casting technique, flux-melting and melt-solidification, to prepare bulk nanostructured alloys. The casting technique has such advantages as simplicity, low cost, and full density. In our method, Ag–Cu alloys were melted in B₂O₃ flux, which removed most of the impurities, mainly oxides, in the melts. Upon solidifying the melt at a relatively slow cooling rate on the order of 10¹–10² K/s a large undercooling of ∼0.25 T _m (where T _m is the melting temperature) was achieved. This large undercooling leads to the formation of bulk nanostructured Ag–Cu alloys composed of alternative Ag/Cu lamella and nanocrystals, both ∼50 nm in dimension. Our liquid-processed alloys are fully dense and relatively free from contamination. The nanostructured Ag–Cu alloys have similar yield strength in tension and in compression. The as-quenched alloys have yield strength of 400 MPa, ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of 550 MPa, and plastic elongation of ∼8%. The UTS was further increased to ∼830 MPa after the as-quenched alloy rod was cold drawn to a strain of ∼2. The nanostructured Ag–Cu alloys show a high electrical conductivity (∼80% that of International Annealed Copper Standard), a slight strain hardening (strain-hardening coefficient of 0.10), and a high thermal stability up to a reduced temperature of 2/3 T _m. Some of these behaviors are different than those found in previous bulk nanostructured materials synthesized by solid state methods, and are explained based on the unique nanostructures achieved by our flux-melting and melt-solidification technique.     

强变形制备超细晶金属材料的方法

强变形是细化晶粒的有效方法,甚至可以制备纳米材料,最近十几年来大量的强变形方法涌现出来,研究也越来越多.介绍了等通道角挤压、高压扭转、连续限制带材角轧挤、循环挤压、限制斜槽压缩、反复弯曲校平、累积叠轧焊等方法,回顾了各种方法可以得到的最大应变量、细化晶粒效果及应变量计算公式.阐述了强变形及剪切变形细化晶粒的机制.     

Efficient fabrication of ultrafine-grained 316L stainless steel surfaces for orthopaedic applications

Commonly used severe plastic deformation (SPD) methods are suitable for fabrication of bulk nano and ultrafine-grained metals. Drawbacks of these methods include durability of dies, geometrical restrictions and reduced ductility of the products. In this study, two common machining techniques used in manufacturing of orthopaedic components, turning and milling, were applied on 316L stainless steel as surface SPD to refine the surface microstructures of the workpiece. Machining with optimised parameters resulted in substantial grain refinement down to 98?nm on the surfaces. Biological experiments showed up to ～70% and ～280% increased bone cell density on milled and turned samples compared to conventionally machined 316L stainless steel at 5 days, which was correlated with nanocrystallisation and nanoroughness of the samples.     

Novel microstructures from severely deformed Al–Ti alloys created by chip formation in machining

We present some consequences of Severe Plastic Deformation (SPD) of Al–Ti alloys by chip formation in machining that can enable opportunities for creating novel microstructures. Chips cut from Al-6wt%Ti are composed of a refined dispersion of the fragmented remains of a hitherto coarse Al₃Ti embedded in a nanostructured matrix. This multi-phase nanostructured chip material demonstrates considerable resistance to coarsening owing to the thermally stable dispersion of ultra-fine Al₃Ti dispersions and thus has promise in structural alloy applications. Furthermore, the Al–Ti machining chips are shown to possess excellent grain refining characteristics, leading to microstructurally refined and homogeneous Al alloy castings. This realization enables a low-cost route for enhancing the efficiency of the grain refiner master alloy systems by exploiting SPD during chip formation.     

Atomic-scale dissecting the formation mechanism of gradient nanostructured layer on Mg alloy processed by a novel high-speed machining technique

Severe plastic deformation(SPD)-induced gradient nanostructured(GNS)metallic materials exhibit supe-rior mechanical performance,especially the high strength and good ductility.In this study,a novel high-speed machining SPD technique,namely single point diamond turning(SPDT),was developed to produce effectively the GNS layer on the hexagonal close-packed(HCP)structural Mg alloy.The high-resolution transmission electron microscopy observations and atomistic molecular dynamics sim-ulations were mainly performed to atomic-scale dissect the grain refinement process and corresponding plastic deformation mechanisms of the GNS layer.It was found that the grain refinement process for the formation of the GNS Mg alloy layer consists of elongated coarse grains,lamellar fine grains with deformation-induced-tension twins and contraction twins,ultrafine grains,and nanograins with the grain size of～70 nm along the direction from the inner matrix to surface.Specifically,experiment results and atomistic simulations reveal that these deformation twins are formed by gliding twinning partial dis-locations that are dissociated from the lattice dislocations piled up at grain boundaries.The corresponding deformation mechanisms were evidenced to transit from the deformation twinning to dislocation slip when the grain size was below 2.45 μm.Moreover,the Hall-Petch relationship plot and the surface equivalent stress along the gradient direction estimated by finite element analysis for the SPDT process were incorporated to quantitatively elucidate the transition of deformation mechanisms during the grain refinement process.Our findings have implications for the development of the facile SPD technique to construct high strength-ductility heterogeneous GNS metals,especially for the HCP metals.     

Paradoxes of Severe Plastic Deformation

Severe plastic deformation (SPD) can lead to emergence of microstructural features and properties in materials which are fundamentally different from the ones well known for conventional cold deformation. In particular, the instances of unusual phase transformations resulting in development of highly metastable states associated with formation of supersaturated solid solutions, disordering or amorphization and their further decomposition during heating, high thermal stability of the SPD‐produced nanostructures, and the paradox of strength and ductility in some SPD‐processed metals and alloys are discussed.