Virtue ethics, multiculturalism, and the paradox of cultural dialogue.

Comments on the article by Fowers and Davidov, "The virtue of multiculturalism: Personal transformation, character and openess to the other," (see record 2006-11202-002). Fowers and Davidov offered a virtue-based approach to understanding and fostering multiculturalism in psychology. Fowers and Davidov argued that multiculturalism fulfills the classical components of being a virtue, being a worthy goal that requires the wise use of consistent and worthwhile goods. They concluded that the virtue of multiculturalism and its correlate, openness, provide a sound basis for transformative cultural dialogue. It appears that Fowers and Davidov may be caught in what Meiland (1980) has called "The Paradox of Cognitive Relativism." I would argue that the problem, rather than being a faulty argument on their part, is the intrinsic incoherence of an ethic of multiculturalism, which insists that we respect a diversity of cultural backgrounds, and yet insists. The virtue model of ethics is relevant to our cultural concerns as psychologists but certainly does not resolve them. Instead, because it is soundly based in the idea of personal character, its value lies in bringing to light the very dilemmas involving human similarity and difference that have troubled psychologists since the inception of the field. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The primacy of primary control is a human universal: A reply to Gould's (1999) critique of the life-span theory of control.

This reply to S. J. Gould's (see record 1999-03499-007) critique of J. Heckhausen and R. Schulz's (see record 1995-24550-001) life-span theory of control addresses four issues: (1) the universal claim that primary control holds functional primacy over secondary control, (2) the status of secondary control as a confederate to primary control, (3) empirical evidence and paradigms for investigating universality and cultural variations, and (4) the capacity of the human control system to manage both gains and losses in control throughout the life span and aging-related decline in particular. Theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence from evolutionary, comparative, developmental, and cultural psychology are presented to support the authors' view that primary control striving holds functional primacy throughout the life span and across cultural and historical settings. Recommendations for empirically investigating the variations in the way primary control striving is expressed in different cultures are outlined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pancultural self-enhancement reloaded: A meta-analytic reply to Heine (2005).

C. Sedikides, L. Gaertner, and Y. Toguchi (2003; see record 2002-08440-007) reported findings favoring the universality of self-enhancement. S. J. Heine (2005; see record 2005-13803-005) challenged the authors' research on evidential and logical grounds. In response, the authors carried out 2 meta-analytic investigations. The results backed the C. Sedikides et al. (2003) theory and findings. Both Westerners and Easterners self-enhanced tactically. Westerners self-enhanced on attributes relevant to the cultural ideal of individualism, whereas Easterners self-enhanced on attributes relevant to the cultural ideal of collectivism (in both cases, because of the personal importance of the ideal). Self-enhancement motivation is universal, although its manifestations are strategically sensitive to cultural context. The authors respond to other aspects of Heine's critique by discussing why researchers should empirically validate the comparison dimension (individualistic vs. collectivistic) and defending why the better-than-average effect is a valid measure of self-enhancement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The dominance of the disease theory in American ideas about and treatment of alcoholism.

Comments on R. M. Dreger's (see record 1986-20021-001) and W. P. Reich and W. J. Filstead's (see record 1986-20050-001) comments concerning the present author's (see record 1985-28347-001) article on the cultural context of psychological approaches to alcoholism. In answer to the question of whether anyone really believes alcohol is a disease, it is asserted, based on practice, that every clinician in the US does. The question of the most appropriate view of alcoholism is addressed in terms of the debate over controlled drinking vs abstinence. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The virtue of multiculturalism: Personal transformation, character, and openness to the other.

The social, intellectual, and moral movement known as multiculturalism has been enormously influential in psychology. Its ability to reshape psychology has been due to its ethical force, which derives from the attractiveness of its aims of inclusion, social justice, and mutual respect. The cultivation of cultural competence, presented as a developmental process of acquiring self-awareness, cultural knowledge, and skills, is an important emphasis in the multicultural literature. The authors place the cultural competence literature in dialogue with virtue ethics (a contemporary ethical theory derived from Aristotle) to develop a rich and illuminating way for psychologists to understand and embody the personal self-examination, commitment, and transformation required for learning and practicing in a culturally competent manner. According to virtue ethics, multiculturalism can be seen as the pursuit of worthwhile goals that require personal strengths or virtues, knowledge, consistent actions, proper motivation, and practical wisdom. The authors term the virtue of multiculturalism openness to the other and conclude by describing how attention to cultural matters also transforms virtue ethics in important and necessary ways. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A clarification of Heidegger's phenomenology.

Comments on the article "Psychology and Phenomenology: A Clarification" by H. H. Kendler (see record 2005-05480-003). This article calls for clarifications regarding its characterization of Heideggerian phenomenology. Kendler drew on his admittedly "limited understanding" (p. 322) of Heidegger and rested his critique upon a critical confusion that pervaded his presentation--a confusion of the ontological and ontic dimensions of Heidegger's work. In his depiction of authenticity as an objective set of values that form "a universal ethical system that is right for all humanity" (Kendler, 2005, p. 321), Kendler made the mistake of taking an ontological structure to instead prescribe an ontically particular way of living these structures out. Beyond the confusion of ontological structure with ontic particulars, Kendler's (2005) characterization of phenomenological inquiry as "naive" calls for a response. Indeed, whether one agrees with the epistemology of the co-constitution of phenomena or not, the epistemological rigor with which phenomenological psychologists consider approach--a term which "denote[s] the ways a science's basic presuppositions are intimately interrelated with the content it takes up and the methods it evolves" (von Eckartsberg, 1998, p. 4)--belies this charge (see also Giorgi, 1970, 1985; Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parallels between multiculturalism and disunity in psychology.

Comments on the article on multiculturalism by B. J. Fowers and F. C. Richardson (see record 83-30335). Fowers and Richardson's hermeneutic approach also appears applicable to the problem of disciplinary disunity in psychology and the associated threat of relativism. In both cases, psychologists must deal with increasing diversity in an intellectual atmosphere in which there is no universal foundation for evaluating claims of knowledge or cultural correctness. Particularly helpful in overcoming relativism is an openness to claims of truth and morality. Such claims provide a shared context in which members of a culture can communicate and evaluate their differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How selective is acculturation? Broadening our perspective.

Responds to the comments by C. Killian (see record 2011-02175-013) on the current authors' original article, "Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research" (see record 2010-08987-001). Killian has focused on issues of selective acculturation—specifically, the ability of individuals and families to direct their own (and their children’s) acculturative trajectories. Let us start by saying that we fully agree with Killian that some dimensions of acculturation are selective in some contexts. Yes, parents do encourage adolescents to gravitate toward specific aspects of their cultural heritage and to avoid specific aspects of the receiving cultural context, and vice versa, with respect to these cultural domains. Uma?a-Taylor, Bhanot, and Shin (2006) referred to this phenomenon as familial ethnic socialization. Uma?a-Taylor et al. have found familial ethnic socialization to promote identifications with one’s heritage culture—and we have found in our own research (Schwartz, Zamboanga, Rodriguez, & Wang, 2007) that parental socialization is closely related to all three dimensions of heritage- cultural identity. However, in our research, parents’ socialization attempts appear less effective in shaping youths’ acquisition or rejection of American cultural practices, values, and identifications. Why this is the case is a matter of debate, but the presence of the heritage culture in the home does help to increase the likelihood that children and adolescents will retain or adopt it. However, this is not necessarily a guarantee, as we note immediately below. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Can Something Hard Be Made Easy? A Book Essay.

Three books that are intended to teach about psychotherapy (B. D. Beitman & D. Yue, (see record 1999-02454-000); N. A. Cummings & J. L. Cummings, (see record 2000-08252-000); M. O'Brien & G. Houston, (see record 2001-14109-000)) are reviewed with an intent to note points of agreement and disagreement. Although they disagree about some specifics, they agree as to the crucial role of research, theory, and experience and focus on the centrality of the therapeutic relationship. Each endorses the value of psychotherapy integration, although they approach it in different ways. In addition, each recognizes the importance of the cultural context of the treatment relationship and emphasizes the importance of knowledge and attitudes as preconditions to developing appropriate skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Trouble with Problems and Humans: Comment.

Comments on articles by Sanford (see record 1965-13315-001), Berg (see record 1965-13160-001), and Bakan (see record 1965-13159-001) concerning human nature, human problems, and the behavioral sciences. The author states that it would seem reasonable to suppose that much greater attention should be given to the question of the problem with problems and humans. Sanford's idea of an institute seems reasonable. We should not wait for grants, institutes, and time off for thought. The priority of this business is very great. On the other hand, if many of us were given the opportunity to work on this full time, human problems, cultural trends, and the mystery-mastery complex would receive more attention. The discontent of Sanford, Berg, and Bakan would be alleviated much sooner. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural psychology, a new look: Reply to Bond (2002), Fiske (2002), Kitayama (2002), and Miller (2002).

M. H. Bond (2002) (see record 2002-00183-002), A. P. Fiske (2002) (see record 2002-00183-003), S. Kitayama (2002) (see record 2002-00183-004), and J. G. Miller (2002) (see record 2002-00183-005) joined D. Oyserman, H. M. Coon, and M. Kemmelmeier (2002) (see record 2002-00183-001) in highlighting limitations of the individualism-collectivism model of culture. Concern is warranted; nevertheless, individualism-collectivism helps structure discourse on the influence of culture on the mind. To avoid level-of-analysis entanglements, Oyserman et al propose an integrative model that includes distal, proximal, and situated cultural features of societies and internalized models of these features, highlights the importance of subjective construal, and uses evolutionary perspectives to clarify the basic problems cultures address. Framed this way, it is clear that, depending on situational requirements, both individualism- and collectivism-focused strategies are adaptive; thus, it is likely that human minds have adapted to think both ways. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Research as a moral crusade.

Compares G. Howard's (see record 1991-17124-001) and P. Cushman's (see record 1991-17982-001) comments on D. Stern's (1985) book on the interpersonal world of the human infant to illustrate elements of constructionism. The author criticizes constructionists for attempting to delegitimate others who are pursuing universal psychological laws while embracing the dominant western, middle-class ideology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Culture, development, and theory of mind: Comment on Lillard (1998).

In response to A. Lillard's (see record 1997-42548-001) suggestion that research on theory of mind does not adequately examine the cultural context of this thinking, the author proposes an extension of this view that emphasizes the development of theory of mind in sociocultural context. Questions about the study of theory of mind both across and within cultural communities are also raised. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Human abilities in cultural context.

Reviews the book, Human abilities in cultural context by S. H. Irvine and J. W. Berry (see record 1988-98683-000). The three main sections of this book provide a contemporary and historical survey of theory and research in the three areas that have dominated the study of the nature and measurement of intelligence; namely, the cognitive information-processing, Piagetian, and psychometric perspectives. Readers have become accustomed to books which express cither the biological or the sociocultural point of view on intelligence. Although the present volume is on human abilities in cultural context, the editors should be congratulated tor attracting authors who represent both the biological and sociocultural perspectives. This comprehensive collection of reviews will be a basic reference for students and researchers in cognition for many years to come. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond the American Context.

Replies to Raven's comment (see record 2005-15840-018) on Papierno and Ceci's original article (see record 2005-01817-001). The authors agree with Raven's contention that the goals of some interventions (targeted or universalized) are consistent with an outcome that one society (or even a subgroup of that society) has defined as favorable. And it is certainly true that each society will define differently what is or is not advantageous, and certain forms of intervention will, by their very design, emphasize abilities that are entrenched in cultural partiality. However, the authors argue that in some cases, the criteria to which models predict are not constrained by any cultural bias. An analysis of the predictors of success in science, economics, and even the arts would reveal at least some factors that myriad societies share. Thus, the issue they put forth is one that is relevant beyond the American context and that clearly spans multiple domains. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Primate research, family politics, and social policy: Transforming 'cads' into 'dads' ": Reply.

Responds to the comments of S. Sperling (see record 1994-17265-001), J. Belsky (see record 1994-17245-001), V. Phares (see record 1994-17261-001), and M. E. Lamb (see record 1994-17257-001) on the work of L. B. Silverstein (see record 1994-17264-001) on evolutionary biology and human paternal behavior, father involvement, father absence, and biological determinism. Silverstein asserts that her overriding goal was to dramatize how extrascientific factors (e.g., political ideology) shape the construction of scientific knowledge. It is argued that the experience of nurturing and caring for young children has the power to change the cultural construction of masculinity into something less coercive and oppressive. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Consciousness and the voices of the mind": Response to the discussants.

In planning the McMaster University Brain and Behaviour Research Programme's 1983 Bauer lecture, it was deemed that a topic in the area of cognitive neuroscience might be suitable, preferably one of a general nature that would be of interest to several disciplines. Consciousness, one of the most perplexing of human issues, requires that we question how the living material of the human brain results in the subjective awareness humankind experiences. Julian Jaynes was asked to present the lecture, which was entitled "Consciousness and the voices of the mind" (see record 2007-08986-001). In this article, Jaynes responds to comments on his lecture by Daniel Dennett (see record 2007-09336-002), Jonathan Miller (see record 2007-09336-003), and George Ojemann (see record 2007-09336-004). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Further reflections on publishing multiple journal articles from the same data set: Reply to Bray (1994) and Parke (1994).

J. H. Bray's (see record 1995-11196-001) and R. D. Parke's (see record 1995-11204-001) comments on M. A. Fine and L. A. Kurdek's (see record 1995-11198-001) article are constructive, and their efforts have extended the dialogue on the important issue of publishing multiple journal articles from a single data set. This article identifies areas of agreement with Bray and Parke and comments on additional issues that they raised. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the dynamics of generalization.

R. N. Shepard (see record 1988-28272-001) has proposed a universal exponential law of stimulus generalization, yet experimental data are often Gaussian in form. Shepard and others have proposed theories to reconcile the discrepancy, although, as proposed herein, a simple discrete diffusion process may underlie both types of gradient. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)