Occurrence,prevention and remediation of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in silage: a review

Ruminants are considered to be less sensitive towards mycotoxins than monogastric animals because rumen microbiota have mycotoxin‐detoxifying capacities. Therefore the effect of mycotoxins towards ruminants has been studied to a lesser extent compared with monogastric animals. Worldwide, a high proportion of the ruminant diet consists of silages made of forage crops (i.e. all parts of the crop above the stubble are harvested). In practice, silages are often contaminated with multiple mycotoxins. Exposure to a cocktail of mycotoxins can hamper animal production and have severe health consequences. In this article the different aspects associated with mycotoxin contamination of silage are reviewed ‘from seed to feed’. An overview is given on the occurrence of toxigenic fungal species and their concomitant mycotoxins in forage crops before and after ensiling. The mycotoxin load of visually non‐mouldy samples and mouldy hot spots within the same silo is also compared. Subsequently, this review delves into different problem‐solving strategies. A logical first step is prevention of mould growth and mycotoxin production in the field, during harvest and during ensiling. If prevention should fail, several remediation strategies are available. These are listed, mainly focusing on the possibilities of microbial degradation of mycotoxins in vivo in silage. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry     

Aflatoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in food: a review

Abstract

Food contamination is a common phenomenon in the production, distribution and consumption of processed and agricultural commodities all over the world. Food safety is now taking the frontal stage in food production, processing and distribution. This study assessed the presence of aflatoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in foods, occurrence, control, socio-economic and health implications. This study also gave comprehensive information on the safety and mycological quality of foods as well the effect on the people and economy of various countries. The review revealed the various aflatoxigenic fungi in foods, their distribution in agricultural produce and their effects on reduction in yield and quality with attendant consumer health implications and resulting significant economic losses. In developing countries, majority of the people do not know the inherent dangers of consuming mouldy produce or food contaminated with fungi and moulds with possible contamination by mycotoxigenic fungi because of lack of awareness about the danger involved. In view of this, there is need for general and public education to sensitise the people on the economic and health hazards posed by mycotoxins. Control measures such as good agricultural practices, crop selection, proper washing and cooking practices of food commodities should be emphasized to the people. Regulatory control, fast and effective analyses and detection, good produce handling and storage should be encouraged as this will assist in mitigating the side effects of mycotoxins in foods particularly in the tropical and sub-tropical countries, and in Africa nations where there is enabling environment that promotes fungal growth, shortage of food and drought of modern storage and processing infrastructures.     

Occurrence of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in animal feed from bihar,india

A total of 387 samples comprising animal feed, poultry feed and cattle cakes from India were examined in order to isolate mycotoxin-producing fungi as well as mycotoxins. Of 385 Aspergillus flavus group isolates 53% were capable of producing aflatoxins in liquid SMKY medium. Toxigenic strains of other mycotoxigenic fungi, viz A ochraceus, A versicolor, Penicillium citrinum and Fusarium moniliforme, were also recorded. In feed samples, beside the aflatoxins present in 139 samples zearalenone, ochratoxin A and citrinin were also recorded alone or as cocontaminants. A monsoon climate together with the socioeconomic conditions of this region are important determinants for the high incidence of mycotoxins in animal food.     

食品与饲料基质中真菌毒素检测技术研究进展

真菌毒素是真菌在生长繁殖过程中产生的相对分子质量较小的次生有毒代谢产物,不易被加工或烹调加热所破坏,超过一定摄入量后会引起人的肝肾功能下降、癌变或诱发免疫抑制性疾病。目前尚无绝对有效的措施避免真菌毒素的污染,因此,研究可以准确高效地测定食品和饲料基质中的真菌毒素的检测技术非常重要。本研究通过对真菌毒素提取方法、净化方法及检测技术的研究进展进行综述,发现目前研究方法大多是针对某一种真菌毒素进行检测的常规检测方法或者同时检测多种真菌毒素的检测方法,由于这些方法存在稳定性差、定量不准确或前处理复杂等,因此未来应大力开发检测快速、高灵敏度、高特异性的真菌毒素检测方法。     

Occurrence of mycotoxins in maize,grass and wheat silage for dairy cattle in the Netherlands

The occurrence of mycotoxins in 140 maize silages, 120 grass silages and 30 wheat silages produced in the Netherlands between 2002 and 2004 was determined using a liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry detection (LC-MS/MS) multi-method. Deoxynivalenol (DON) was detected above the limit of quantification (LOQ) of 250 μg kg^?1 in 72% of maize and 10% of wheat silages. Average DON concentrations were 854 and 621 μg kg^?1, respectively, and maximum concentrations 3142 and 1165 μg kg^?1, respectively. Zearalenone was detected above the LOQ of 25 μg kg^?1 in 49% of maize and 6% of grass silages. Average zearalenone concentrations were 174 and 93 μg kg^?1, respectively, and maximum concentrations 943 and 308 μg kg^?1, respectively. The incidences and average concentrations of DON and zearalenone in maize silage were highest in 2004. The incidence of other mycotoxins was low: fumonisin B1 and 15-acetyl-DON were detected in 1.4 and 5% of maize silages, respectively, and roquefortin C in 0.8% of grass silages. None of the silages contained aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, T2-toxin, HT2-toxin, sterigmatocystin, diacetoxyscirpenol, fusarenon-X, ergotamine, penicillinic acid, or mycophenolic acid. This study demonstrates that maize silage is an important source of DON and zearalenone in the diet of dairy cattle. Since the carryover of these mycotoxins into milk is negligible, their occurrence in feed is not considered to be of significant concern with respect to the safety of dairy products for consumers. Potential implications for animal health are discussed.     

Silage review: Recent advances and future technologies for whole-plant and fractionated corn silage harvesting

Over the last 25 years, whole-plant corn silage has become an important and popular feedstuff for dairy production. Copious research has been dedicated to the development and evaluation of alternatives to enhance the nutritive value of whole-plant corn silage. These efforts have been aimed at manipulating the physical and chemical characteristics of whole-plant corn silage in an effort to maximize dairy profitability. Results from this review indicate that optimization of harvest maturity, kernel processing, theoretical length of cut, and cutting height improve or maintain the nutritive value and milk production of lactating dairy cows. Technological advancements have been developed and made available to dairy producers and corn growers desiring to enhance fiber and starch digestibility of whole-plant corn silage. Future research should be directed toward further assessment of new processors available in the market and the development of assessment methods for optimization of crop processor settings, harvest efficiency, and nutritional modeling.     

Replacing corn silage with different forage millet silage cultivars: Effects on milk yield,nutrient digestion,and ruminal fermentation of lactating dairy cows

This study investigated the effects of dietary replacement of corn silage (CS) with 2 cultivars of forage millet silages [i.e., regular millet (RM) and sweet millet (SM)] on milk production, apparent total-tract digestibility, and ruminal fermentation characteristics of dairy cows. Fifteen lactating Holstein cows were used in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square experiment and fed (ad libitum) a high-forage total mixed ration (68:32 forage:concentrate ratio). Dietary treatments included CS (control), RM, and SM diets. Experimental silages constituted 37% of each diet DM. Three ruminally fistulated cows were used to determine the effect of dietary treatments on ruminal fermentation and total-tract nutrient utilization. Relative to CS, RM and SM silages contained 36% more crude protein, 66% more neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and 88% more acid detergent fiber. Cows fed CS consumed more dry matter (DM; 24.4 vs. 22.7 kg/d) and starch (5.7 vs. 3.7 kg/d), but less NDF (7.9 vs. 8.7 kg/d) than cows fed RM or SM. However, DM, starch and NDF intakes were not different between forage millet silage types. Feeding RM relative to CS reduced milk yield (32.7 vs. 35.2 kg/d), energy-corrected milk (35.8 vs. 38.0 kg/d) and SCM (32.7 vs. 35.3 kg/d). However, cows fed SM had similar milk, energy-corrected milk, and solids-corrected milk yields than cows fed CS or RM. Milk efficiency was not affected by dietary treatments. Milk protein concentration was greatest for cows fed CS, intermediate for cows fed SM, and lowest for cows fed RM. Milk concentration of solids-not-fat was lesser, whereas milk urea nitrogen was greater for cows fed RM than for those fed CS. However, millet silage type had no effect on milk solids-not-fat and milk urea nitrogen levels. Concentrations of milk fat, lactose and total solids were not affected by silage type. Ruminal pH and ruminal NH₃-N were greater for cows fed RM and SM than for cows fed CS. Total-tract digestibility of DM (average = 67.9%), NDF (average = 53.9%), crude protein (average = 63.3%), and gross energy (average = 67.9%) were not influenced by dietary treatments. It was concluded that cows fed CS performed better than those fed RM or SM likely due to the higher starch and lower NDF intakes. However, no major differences were noted between the 2 forage millet silage cultivars.     

Use of exogenous fibrolytic enzymes to enhance in vitro fermentation of alfalfa hay and corn silage

Two in vitro experiments were performed to identify promising exogenous fibrolytic enzyme products (EFE) and optimum dose rates (DR) for improving the degradation of alfalfa hay and corn silage. The relationship between enzymatic activity and fermentation responses was examined to identify optimum formulations. In experiment 1, 5 EFE containing mainly endoglucanase and xylanase activities, with different ratios between the 2 activities, were assessed at a DR of 0.7, 1.4, and 2.1 mg/g of DM forage. Milled alfalfa hay or corn silage was incubated in an in vitro batch culture with buffer, ruminal fluid, and EFE. Gas production (GP) was measured during 24 h of incubation, and degradabilities of DM and fiber were measured after terminating the incubation at 24 h. Two (E1 and E3) EFE substantially improved GP and degradation of alfalfa hay and corn silage fiber. The optimum DR of these EFE was 1.4 mg/g of DM for both forages with improvements in NDF degradability up to 20.6% for alfalfa hay and up to 60.3% for corn silage. Whereas added activities of endoglucanase and exoglucanase were positively correlated with improvement in NDF degradability for alfalfa hay and corn silage, there was no relationship between added xylanase activity and NDF degradability. The 2 most promising EFE from experiment 1 were reevaluated in experiment 2, alone and in combination with a high xylanase EFE, to determine whether their effectiveness could be enhanced by decreasing the endoglucanase to xylanase ratio. The 2 EFE improved GP and fiber degradation in a manner similar to that observed in experiment 1, but the combination treatments resulted in no further beneficial effects. Exogenous fibrolytic enzyme products can greatly improve forage utilization, but DR and the activities supplied are critical for achieving this response. Products used with alfalfa hay and corn silage should contain high endoglucanase activity, with an ideal ratio of endoglucanse to xylanase.     

Occurrence of Fusarium Head Blight species and Fusarium mycotoxins in winter wheat in the Netherlands in 2009

Most recent information on the occurrence of Fusarium Head Blight species and related mycotoxins in wheat grown in the Netherlands dates from 2001. This aim of this study was to investigate the incidence and levels of Fusarium Head Blight species and Fusarium mycotoxins, as well as their possible relationships, in winter wheat cultivated in the Netherlands in 2009. Samples were collected from individual fields of 88 commercial wheat growers. Samples were collected at harvest from 86 fields, and 2 weeks before the expected harvest date from 21 fields. In all, 128 samples, the levels of each of seven Fusarium Head Blight species and of 12 related mycotoxins were quantified. The results showed that F. graminearum was the most frequently observed species at harvest, followed by F. avenaceum and M. nivale. In the pre-harvest samples, only F. graminearum and M. nivale were relevant. The highest incidence and concentrations of mycotoxins were found for deoxynivalenol, followed by zearalenone and beauvericin, both pre-harvest and at harvest. Other toxins frequently found – for the first time in the Netherlands – included T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, and moniliformin. The levels of deoxynivalenol were positively related to F. graminearum levels, as well as to zearalenone levels. Other relationships could not be established. The current approach taken in collecting wheat samples and quantifying the presence of Fusarium Head Blight species and related mycotoxins is an efficient method to obtain insight into the occurrence of these species and toxins in wheat grown under natural environmental conditions. It is recommended that this survey be repeated for several years to establish inter-annual variability in both species composition and mycotoxin occurrence.     

Effect of forage to concentrate ratio with sorghum silage as a source of forage on rumen fermentation,N balance,and purine derivative excretion in limit-fed dairy heifers

Sorghum silage has been shown to be a good alternative to corn silage for dairy cows; however, studies regarding heifers are insufficiently explored. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate effects of changing forage to concentrate ratio (FOR:CON) in diets based on sorghum silage on N digestibility, rumen fermentation, N balance, C excretion, and microbial N yield in limit-fed dairy heifers. A split-plot 4 × 4 Latin square design with 19-d periods (15 d of adaptation and 4 d of sampling) was conducted with 8 rumen cannulated dairy heifers (age 13.7 ± 0.6 mo and weight 364.8 ± 17.6 kg). Heifers were fed sorghum silage–based diets with 4 FOR:CON (85:15, 75:25, 65:35, and 55:45) balanced for similar metabolizable energy intake per unit of body weight and crude protein concentration. Diets were fed to allow 900 to 1,000 g/d body weight gain and were fed once daily. Total collection of feces and urine was completed on d 15 to 19 to determine N, C, urea N, allantoin, uric acid, and creatinine excretion. Rumen contents were sampled on d 19 at 0, 1.5, 3, 4.5, 6, 9, 13, 17, 21, and 23 h after feeding to measure pH, volatile fatty acid (VFA), ammonia-N, and free AA concentrations. The pH decreased linearly while ammonia-N and free AA levels increased linearly with decreasing FOR:CON of diets. Although mean total VFA did not differ among treatment diets, molar proportions of VFA did. Acetate proportion decreased while propionate and butyrate increased with decreasing FOR:CON. Intake of N and urea N excretion decreased with decreasing forage proportion in diets while total N excretion, apparent N digestibility, and N retention were not different. Intake of C and excretion in feces (g/d) decreased linearly with decreasing FOR:CON in diets. Creatinine, allantoin, and uric acid excretion were not affected by FOR:CON; however, microbial N yield tended to increase linearly with greater concentrate in diets. Heifers limit fed diets based on sorghum silage demonstrated the effect of available ammonia-N and readily fermentable carbohydrates with subsequent effects on nutrient utilization when different FOR:CON were applied. Based on the presented results, FOR:CON 65:35 had the most suitable balance of available ammonia-N and readily fermentable carbohydrates for the most optimal results.     

Occurrence and risk assessment of population exposed to deoxynivalenol in foods derived from wheat flour in Brazil

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most important of the trichothecenes in terms of amounts and occurrence in wheat. This compound was shown to be associated with a glomerulonephropathy involving an increase of immunoglobulin A in humans. This study assessed the occurrence of DON in wheat flour and the exposure of Brazilian teenagers, adults and elderly to this mycotoxin due to intake of wheat flour-based products. DON extraction in wheat flour was carried out by solid phase extraction and the quantification was performed by ultra-high proficiency liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. A total of 77.9% of all samples were positive for DON, with concentrations ranging from 73.50 to 2794.63 µg kg^?1. The intake was calculated for the average and 90th percentile of the contamination levels of DON in foods based-wheat for teenagers, adults and elderly in Brazil, and compared with the provisional maximum tolerable daily intakes (PMTDI). Females of all age groups were exposed to DON at higher levels when compared to males in regard of consumption of breads and pastas. Teenagers were the main consumers of foods derived from wheat flour, with maximum probable daily intakes of 1.28 and 1.20 µg kg^?1 b.w. day^?1 for females and males, respectively. This population is at an increased risk of exposure to DON due to consumption of wheat flour-based foods in Brazil.     

Effects of corn silage particle length and forage:concentrate ratio on milk fatty acid composition in dairy cows fed supplemental flaxseed

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of length of chop of corn silage and forage:concentrate ratio (F:C) on performance and milk fatty acid profiles in dairy cows supplemented with flaxseed. Our hypothesis was that decreasing forage particle length and F:C ratio would increase unsaturated fatty acid flow to the small intestine and subsequent transfer of these unsaturated fatty acids into milk. Eight Holstein cows (648.1 ± 71.5 kg body weight; 109.6 ± 43.6 days in milk) were used in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design with 21-d periods and a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of dietary treatments. Dietary factors were: 1) F:C ratios (dry matter basis) of 55:45 and 45:55; and 2) corn silage particle lengths of 9.52 and 19.05 mm. All experimental cows received 1 kg of flaxseed to substitute for 1 kg of a rolled barley grain-based concentrate daily. Diets were fed twice daily as a total mixed ration. Corn silage particle length and F:C ratio had no effect on dry matter intake, milk yield, and milk composition; however, feeding short cut corn silage depressed milk protein yield. Significant particle size × F:C ratio interactions were observed for milk fat proportions of C_16:0, C_18:1cis-9, and C_18:2cis-9, trans-11 (a conjugated linoleic acid isomer). At short corn silage particle size, decreasing F:C ratio depressed milk fat proportion of C_16:0. Conversely, feeding short corn silage at high F:C ratio increased the proportion of C_18:1cis-9 and C_18:2cis-9, trans-11 in milk fat. The milk fat proportion of C_18:2trans-10, cis-12, a conjugated linoleic acid isomer that is associated with milk fat depression, was not affected by dietary treatment. Our results show that corn silage particle length and F:C ratio influence milk fatty acid profiles in dairy cows fed supplemental flaxseed as a source of polyunsaturated fatty acids.     

茶叶中真菌毒素风险评估及防控研究进展

茶叶在国内外有着广泛的消费基础,对人体有益作用明显,但生产加工过程中茶园管理、鲜叶采摘、茶叶加工、流通和储存不当易造成真菌毒素污染,影响茶叶品质及消费者健康。开展茶叶真菌毒素风险评估研究及控制对于促进茶叶产业健康持续发展有重要意义,研究显示通过饮用茶叶摄入真菌毒素健康风险较低。本文综述了茶叶中真菌毒素污染来源、危害、安全限值设置及防控措施,重点对茶叶中真菌毒素检测方法、迁移溶出规律、常用暴露评估方法和风险描述进行归纳梳理。在此基础上,分析茶叶真菌毒素暴露风险评估存在的问题,对其研究方向进行展望,以期为茶叶中真菌毒素的评估和污染控制领域后续研究提供参考。     

A systematic review of plant-conjugated masked mycotoxins: Occurrence,toxicology, and metabolism

Abstract

Masked mycotoxins are biologically modified phase II metabolites formed by plant defense mechanisms through glucosylation catalyzed by uridine diphosphate -glucosyltransferases. Most of the current reports focus on the occurrence of masked mycotoxins in Europe, America, Africa, and cover other geographic regions, e.g. China and Japan. High proportions of masked mycotoxins co-occurring with their parent forms in various cereal-based food and feedstuff could clearly increase total exposures and pose additional health risks to humans and animals. In contrast to the parent mycotoxins, the data on the toxicity of masked mycotoxins are still scarce, however, the poor existing information showed that masked mycotoxins generally exhibit significant in vitro and in vivo toxicities lower than those of their parent forms, especially for deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, which is the only thoroughly investigated masked mycotoxin. Although the lower toxicity level of masked mycotoxins, these are probably hydrolyzed into their free forms by intestinal microorganisms in the digestive tract of mammals and thus contribute to unpredicted toxicity. The metabolic characteristics of reported masked mycotoxins are species-specific. The most relevant animal model of human sensitivity, the pig, is most sensitive to masked mycotoxins. This review focuses on updates in the current knowledge on country-specific natural-occurrence data in global surveys, as well as in vitro and in vivo toxicology and metabolic investigations of masked mycotoxins.     

Silage review: Mycotoxins in silage: Occurrence,effects, prevention,and mitigation

Ensiled forage, particularly corn silage, is an important component of dairy cow diets worldwide. Forages can be contaminated with several mycotoxins in the field pre-harvest, during storage, or after ensiling during feed-out. Exposure to dietary mycotoxins adversely affects the performance and health of livestock and can compromise human health. Several studies and surveys indicate that ruminants are often exposed to mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, zearalenone, and many other fungal secondary metabolites, via the silage they ingest. Problems associated with mycotoxins in silage can be minimized by preventing fungal growth before and after ensiling. Proper silage management is essential to reduce mycotoxin contamination of dairy cow feeds, and certain mold-inhibiting chemical additives or microbial inoculants can also reduce the contamination levels. Several sequestering agents also can be added to diets to reduce mycotoxin levels, but their efficacy varies with the type and level of mycotoxin contamination. This article gives an overview of the types, prevalence, and levels of mycotoxin contamination in ensiled forages in different countries, and describes their adverse effects on health of ruminants, and effective prevention and mitigation strategies for dairy cow diets. Future research priorities discussed include research efforts to develop silage additives or rumen microbial innocula that degrade mycotoxins.     

Occurrence of ochratoxin A in sweet wines produced in Spain and other countries

A survey for the presence of ochratoxin A (OTA) was undertaken from 2001 to 2005 in 188 samples of sweet wines produced in Spain and in 102 samples originating from other countries: France (n = 49), Austria (9), Chile (9), Portugal (9), Greece (6), Italy (5), Germany (3), Hungary (2), Slovenia (2), Switzerland (2), Canada (1), Japan (1), New Zealand (1), Ukraine (1), South Africa (1) and the USA (1). The analytical method was based on immunoaffinity chromatography clean-up and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection. The limit of detection (defined as a signal-noise ratio = 3) was estimated to be 0.01 µg l^-1. The limit of quantification (0.02 µg l^-1) was checked as being the lowest measurable concentration. OTA was detected in 281 out of 290 samples analysed (96.9% positive) at concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 4.63 µg l^-1. The overall mean and median levels were estimated to be 0.50 and 0.14 µg l^-1, respectively. In Spanish sweet wines OTA was found in 99% of the samples, with mean and median values of 0.65 and 0.19 µg l^-1, respectively. The mean value obtained in this study for OTA in the Spanish sweet wines would result in an intake of about 37.5 and 3.2 ng day^-1 of OTA for regular consumers and for the overall population, respectively. These figures represent a minor contribution to the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) or TWI established by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and the European Food Safety Authority: 3.8 and 3.1% for regular consumers; and 0.4 and 0.3% for the whole adult population, respectively.     

Occurrence and risk assessment of mycotoxins,acrylamide, and furan in Latvian beer

This work reports data on the occurrence of nine mycotoxins and two food processing contaminants – acrylamide and furan – in a total of 100 beers produced in Latvia. Mycotoxins were detected by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry, acrylamide by HPLC coupled with quadrupole-Orbitrap mass spectrometry, and furan by headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The most frequently occurring mycotoxins were HT-2 and deoxynivalenol (DON), which were detected in 52% and 51% of the analysed samples. The highest content was observed for DON, reaching the maximum of 248 µg kg^?1. Furan was ubiquitous, and 74% of the samples contained acrylamide. In terms of the estimated exposure, the biggest potential risk was identified for HT-2 representing more than 11% of tolerable weekly intake. The margin of exposure approach indicated the exposure to furan through beer as significant, this parameter being close to the critical limit.     

Influence of hexamine and sodium nitrite in combination with sodium benzoate and sodium propionate on fermentation and hygienic quality of wilted and long cut grass silage

Bale silage is usually made from long or restricted cut grass. Long cut herbage may be difficult to ensile, because of delayed and heterogenous fermentation. The aim of the present study was to find the optimal composition and level of an additive based on a mixture of hexamine, ie hexamethylene‐tetraamine (HMTA) and sodium nitrite (NaN) together with sodium benzoate (NaB) and sodium propionate (NaP) to restrict aerobic deterioration. The silage crop (318 g DM kg⁻¹; 158 g CP, 98 g ash, 89 g WSC, a buffering capacity of 200 mE and an ME value of 8.7 MJ per kg DM) consisting of about 30% ryegrass (Lolium perenne L), 30% meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis L) and 40% timothy (Phleum pratense L) was harvested by a self‐loading wagon. Grass was ensiled in 4 l PVC laboratory silos. Silos of each treatment were either closed immediately with a water‐seal or aerated with 2.3 l air per 24 h during the first 12 days of ensiling. Silages were treated with additives containing different concentrations and combinations of HMTA, NaN, NaB and NaP. Formic acid treated silage and untreated silage were used as controls. A mixture of HMTA and NaN (KSQ) improved fermentation by reducing pH, butyric acid, ammonia and increasing lactic acid and residual water‐soluble carbohydrates (WSC) concentrations. This mixture also reduced the number of Clostridium spores in the silage. Addition to 300 g HMTA and 450 g NaN ton⁻¹ FM was satisfactory to improve fermentation and restrict clostridial activity, but the aerobic stability of the silage was low. Addition of organic acid salts was more effective and improved both fermentation and storage stability. NaB (800 g) or a mixture of 690 g NaB and 210 g NaP was satisfactory to control aerobic stability. The use of HMTA and NaN in combination with NaB and NaP resulted in high hygienic quality and storage stability of silage made from unchopped and wilted grass. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry     

DNA arrays, electronic noses and tongues, biosensors and receptors for rapid detection of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins: A review

This paper presents an overview of how microsystem technology tools can be applied to the development of rapid, out-of-laboratory measurement capabilities for the determinations of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in foodstuffs. Most of the topics discussed are all under investigation within the European Commission-sponsored project Good-Food (FP6-IST). These are DNA arrays, electronic noses and electronic tongues for the detection of fungal contaminants in feed, and biosensors and chemical sensors based on microfabricated electrode systems, antibodies and novel synthetic receptors for the detection of specific mycotoxins. The approach to resolution of these difficult measurement problems in real matrices requires a multidisciplinary approach. The technology tools discussed can provide a route to the rapid, on-site generation of data that can aid the safe production of high-quality foodstuffs.