Modeling Loading/Unloading Hysteresis Behavior of Unidirectional C/SiC Ceramic Matrix Composites

The loading/unloading tensile behavior of unidirectional C/SiC ceramic matrix composites at room temperature has been investigated. The loading/unloading stress–strain curve exhibits obvious hysteresis behavior. An approach to model the hysteresis loops of ceramic matrix composites including the effect of fiber failure during tensile loading has been developed. By adopting a shear-lag model which includes the matrix shear deformation in the bonded region and friction in the debonded region, the matrix cracking space and interface debonded length are obtained by matrix statistical cracking model and fracture mechanics interface debonded criterion. The two-parameter Weibull model is used to describe the fiber strength distribution. The stress carried by the intact and fracture fibers on the matrix crack plane during unloading and subsequent reloading is determined by the Global Load Sharing criterion. Based on the damage mechanisms of fiber sliding relative to matrix during unloading and subsequent reloading, the unloading interface reverse slip length and reloading interface new slip length are obtained by the fracture mechanics approach. The hysteresis loops of unidirectional C/SiC ceramic matrix composites corresponding to different stress have been predicted.     

Tensile fracture process of Strain Hardening Cementitious Composites by means of three-dimensional meso-scale analysis

There are a wide variety of short fiber reinforced cement composites. Among these materials are Strain Hardening Cementitious Composites (SHCC) that exhibit strain hardening and multiple cracking in tension. Quantitative material design methods considering the properties of matrix, fiber and their interface should be established. In addition, numerical models to simulate the fracture process including crack width and crack distribution for the material are needed.This paper introduces a numerical model for three-dimensional analysis of SHCC fracture, in which the salient features of the material meso-scale (i.e. matrix, fibers and their interface) are discretized. The fibers are randomly arranged within the specimen models. Load test simulations are conducted and compared with experimental results. It is seen that the proposed model can well simulate the tensile failure of Ultra High Performance-Strain Hardening Cementitious Composites (UHP-SHCC) including strain-hardening behavior and crack patterns. The effects of matrix strength, its probability distribution inside the specimen and fiber distribution on the tensile fracture are numerically investigated. Consideration of the probability distributions of material properties, such as matrix strength, appears to be essential for predicting the fracture process of SHCC.     

Micromechanics of Fiber‐Reinforced Cementitious Composites

The strain hardening and tension softening response of short fiber‐reinforced cementitious composites under unidirectional tensile/flexural loading is modelled using concepts from fracture and damage mechanics. The tensile strain hardening in these composites is due to the formation of microcracks which are however prevented from coalescing by the bridging action of the fibers. The density of microcracks increases with increasing tensile/flexural loading until it reaches a saturation level at the tensile load carrying capacity of the composite. Thereafter the fibers progressively debond from the elastic matrix and the deformation begins to localise in the eventual fracture plane, first as unconnected cracks and later as a connected through crack subjected to the residual frictional bridging action by the fibers.     

Mechanical and statistical analyses of fracture of whisker-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites

This paper analyzes the fracture toughness of short-fiber reinforced ceramic-matrix composites (CMC). The effects of crack deflection and fiber pullout on matrix cracking are examined using a combination of mechanical and statistical models. First, the stress intensity factors of a deflected crack subjected to closure stress due to fiber pullout are analyzed based upon the mechanical model. Distributed dislocation method is used for the elastic analysis. Since the deflected crack is subjected to biaxial loading, a mixed mode fracture criterion in linear elastic fracture mechanics is applied to calculate the fracture toughness. Secondly, the number of pullout fibers on the fracture surface is treated as a random variable, and the statistical distribution of these fibers has been determined. The pullout force acting on a deflected crack is also obtained as a random variable by assuming a simple mechanism of fiber pullout. The probability of failure of CMC can thus be estimated from the strength characteristics of the fiber and matrix as well as the interface between these two.     

Crack/fiber interaction and crack growth resistance behavior in microfiber reinforced mortar specimens

Performance enhancement due to microfibers is well known. However, fracture processes that lead to strain hardening behavior in microfiber reinforced composites are not well understood. Crack growth resistance behavior of mortar reinforced with steel microfibers and polypropylene microfibers was investigated in-situ during load application. The polypropylene fibers were inter-ground in the cement mill to enhance the fiber/matrix interfacial frictional stress. A more homogeneous fiber distribution was observed in the inter-ground polypropylene composites compared to the steel microfiber reinforced composites. In steel microfiber reinforced composites the dominant toughening mechanisms were multiple microcracking and successive debonding along the fiber/matrix interface. Fiber pullout, the dominant mechanism in conventional macrofiber reinforced composites was rarely observed. In-situ observation of crack/fiber interaction in the inter-ground polymer fibers also revealed multiple microcracking along the length of the fibers followed by fiber pullout.     

Bio-inspired tapered fibers for composites with superior toughness

The toughness of fiber-reinforced composites largely relies on crack bridging. More specifically, intact fibers left behind the tip of a propagating crack are progressively pulled out of the matrix, dissipating energy which translates into toughness. While short fibers are traditionally straight, recent work has showed that they can be shaped to increase the pullout strength, but not necessarily the energy to pullout. In this work we have modeled, fabricated and tested short fibers with tapered ends inspired from a high-performance natural material: nacre from mollusc shells. The main idea was to duplicate a key mechanism where a slight waviness of the inclusion can generate strain hardening and energy dissipation when the inclusion is pulled out. We have incorporated a similar feature to short fibers, in the form of tapered ends with well defined opening angles. We performed pullout tests on tapered steel fibers in epoxy matrices, which showed that the pullout of tapered fiber dissipates up to 27 times more energy than straight fibers. The experimental results also indicated the existence of an optimum taper angle to maximize work of pullout while preventing the brittle fracture of the matrix. An analytical model was developed to capture the pullout mechanism and the interaction between fiber and matrix. The analytical model can guide the design of tapered fibers by providing predictions on the influence of different parameters.     

Mechanical properties for bulk metallic glass with crystallites precipitation and second ductile phase addition

Monolithic phase bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) produced by a copper mold casting method and BMG composites containing in-situ brittle crystallites and out-situ tungsten fiber produced by a water quenching method were obtained. Mechanical properties including cyclic deformation and fracture toughness were investigated. Under symmetrically cyclic stress control, the life of tungsten fiber reinforced amorphous alloy is much longer than that of the monolithic amorphous alloy. The composite containing tungsten fibers that retard the crack propagation exhibits cyclic softening while the partially crystallized amorphous alloy exhibits stable cycling. The regions of crack initiation, stable propagation and final fracture were observed on the fracture surface. Crystalline brittle phases do not retard the crack propagation but become sites of crack initiation. Tungsten fiber reinforced BMG has the largest fracture toughness while BMG with quenched-in crystallites the smallest. Tungsten fibers stabilize crack growth in the matrix and extend the strain to failure of the composite, while brittle crystallites speed up the crack propagation even though they act as obstacles when shear bands reach them in some cases.     

PROCESSING AND FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF SINTERED FIBER REINFORCED CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES

The paper discusses the processing and the resulting mechanical properties of sintered fiber reinforced ceramic matrix composites. In situ observations of the sintering process revealed that stresses which develop due to the differential shrinkage between the fibers and the matrix initiate already during the heating cycle and are of sufficient magnitude and duration that crack like damage forms. Successful methods were employed for reducing and avoiding these stresses during the sintering process. Coarse grained alumina coatings deposited onto the fibers with a coating thickness of up to 10 µm delayed and reduced the stress development. Polymer coated fibers produced fully dense composites on which fracture toughness measurements were performed. Crack propagation and crack/fiber interaction was observed in situ inside a scanning electron microscope. The importance of studying both the crack front and the crack wake phenomena in fiber reinforced composites is illustrated. In specimens where the cracks are already bridged by 10% area fraction of fibers a toughness of 7 MPa √m was obtained. However, in samples where the cracks are not bridged yet by fibers, the crack becomes unstable before reaching the fiber positions and the fibers had no effect in resisting the crack propagation.     

PROCESSING AND FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF SINTERED FIBER REINFORCED CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES

ABSTRACT

The paper discusses the processing and the resulting mechanical properties of sintered fiber reinforced ceramic matrix composites. In situ observations of the sintering process revealed that stresses which develop due to the differential shrinkage between the fibers and the matrix initiate already during the heating cycle and are of sufficient magnitude and duration that crack like damage forms. Successful methods were employed for reducing and avoiding these stresses during the sintering process. Coarse grained alumina coatings deposited onto the fibers with a coating thickness of up to 10 µm delayed and reduced the stress development. Polymer coated fibers produced fully dense composites on which fracture toughness measurements were performed. Crack propagation and crack/fiber interaction was observed in situ inside a scanning electron microscope. The importance of studying both the crack front and the crack wake phenomena in fiber reinforced composites is illustrated. In specimens where the cracks are already bridged by 10% area fraction of fibers a toughness of 7 MPa √m was obtained. However, in samples where the cracks are not bridged yet by fibers, the crack becomes unstable before reaching the fiber positions and the fibers had no effect in resisting the crack propagation.     

Enhancement of delamination fatigue resistance in carbon nanotube reinforced glass fiber/polymer composites

We show that the addition of small volume fractions of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) to the matrix of glass–fiber composites reduces cyclic delamination crack propagation rates significantly. In addition, both critical and sub-critical inter-laminar fracture toughness values are increased. These results corroborate recent experimental evidence that the incorporation of CNTs improve fatigue life by a factor of two to three in in-plane cyclic loading. We show that in both the critical and sub-critical cases, the degree of delamination suppression is most pronounced at lower levels of applied cyclic strain energy release rate, ΔG. High-resolution scanning electron microscopy of the fracture surfaces suggests that the presence of the CNTs at the delamination crack front slows the propagation of the crack due to crack bridging, nanotube fracture, and nanotube pull-out. Further examination of the sub-critical fracture surfaces shows that the relative proportion of CNT pull-out to CNT fracture is dependent on the applied cyclic strain energy, with pull-out dominating as ΔG is reduced. The conditions for crack propagation via matrix cracking and nanotube pull-out and fracture are studied analytically using fracture mechanics theory and the results compared with data from the experiments. It is believed that the shift in the fracture behavior of the CNTs is responsible for the associated increase in the inter-laminar fracture resistance that is observed at lower levels of ΔG relative to composites not containing CNTs.     

On the post-mortem fracture surface morphology of short fiber reinforced thermoplastics

The fracture surface morphology of short fiber reinforced thermoplastics (SFRTs) has often been used to assess qualitatively the degree of fiber–matrix interfacial adhesion. Mechanical properties such as tensile strength, fracture toughness and failure strain, etc. are then correlated with the morphology. Fracture surfaces showing fibers surrounded by a large amount of matrix material is commonly regarded as indication of strong fiber–matrix interfacial adhesion while smooth fibers are characteristic of weak interfacial adhesion. Many experimental results of SFRTs have been so interpreted. However, it is shown in this paper that strictly speaking, such interpretations are generally incorrect. Moreover, the amount of matrix material does not provide a quantitative measure of the adhesion. Correct implication of the morphology of fracture surfaces is clarified. Short glass fiber reinforced polyamide 6,6/polypropylene (PA 6,6/PP) blends toughened by rubber are employed as examples for SFRTs since the PA 6,6/PP blend system by changing PA 6,6 concentration in the matrix blend represents a wide range of matrix materials. It is demonstrated that the fracture surface morphology of such composites is dependent on both fiber–matrix interfacial adhesion strength and matrix shear yield strength. Consequently, tensile failure strain is well correlated with the post-mortem fracture surface morphology of these SFRTs.     

Mechanism for tensile strain hardening in high performance cement-based fiber reinforced composites

The mechanism responsible for the improvement in tensile strain capacity of FRC (fiber reinforced concrete) as a result of the addition of high volume fraction of discontinuous fibers was investigated, using energy changes associated with cracking. The energy terms considered include: matrix fracture energy, matrix strain energy. debonding energy, fiber strain energy and fiber frictional energy.

Assuming that the first observed crack is also the failure crack, it was found that multiple cracking occurs in high performance FRC. In such composites the energy needed to open the critical cracks exceeds the energy needed to form a new crack. The analysis predicts that the major energy term determining this behavior is the fiber debonding energy.

Multiple cracking was observed in fiber reinforced small densified DSP (particles) containing a high volume fraction (higher than 3%) of fine and short steel fibers. Because crack localization did not occur during multiple cracking, very large increases in total strain capacity were achieved with increasing fiber volume fraction. At 12% fiber volume fraction, a total strain capacity of about 0·2% was measured from flexures tests; an increase of about 15 to 20 times over that of the plain matrix.     

Finite Element Analysis of the Competition Between Crack Deflection and Penetration of Fiber-Reinforced Composites Using Virtual Crack Closure Technique

Crack deflection along the fiber/matrix interface for fiber-reinforced composites is an important condition upon which the toughening mechanisms depend. Sound control for the interface debonding of composites contributes to improving the fracture toughness of composites. Combined with the virtual crack closure technique, a finite element model of composites is proposed to predict the competition between the matrix crack deflection along the interface and the matrix crack penetration into the fibers under the thermomechanical coupling fields. For C/C composites, the effects of the geometry size, fiber volume fraction, fiber coating materials and thermal mismatch on the energy release rate and the crack deflection mechanisms are studied. Results show the fiber coating increases the ability to deflect at large thermal mismatch and small crack sizes, and the TaC coating shows larger effect than the SiC coating. The research provides fundamental method for promoting the toughening design of C/C composites.     

Effect of strain rate on the fracture of ceramic fibre reinforced glass matrix composites

The effect of strain rate on the fracture behaviour of two ceramic fibre reinforced glass matrix composites was studied. Increasing the strain rate was found to enhance catastrophic failure in both of these composites. This was attributed to the crack deflection and changes in the fibre pullout length as a function of strain rate. Enhanced strain rates were found to decrease the strength, static toughness and fracture energy of the composites. This effect was more pronounced in the case of the coated fibre composites as compared to the uncoated fibre composites. This is because of fibre/matrix isolation, obtained as a result of the coating.     

短纤维对基体微裂纹扩展的阻滞效应分析

本文用细观力学方法分析短纤维对基体微裂纹扩展的阻滞效应。考虑了单向和随机各向两类短纤维增强复合材料,用应力强度因子和应变能密度因子的变化来表征纤维阻滞裂纹扩展的效应。本文对三种短纤维复合材料作出了具体计算。     

The random crack core model for predicting the longitudinal tensile strengths of unidirectional composites

A perfect evolvement process of random crack cores is presented and a random crack core model for predicting the longitudinal tensile strengths of unidirectional composites is built in this paper. Based on the crack propagation rules, the numerical relationship of the number of random crack cores, evolvement probability of a random crack core evolving to critical size, and failure probability of a unidirectional composite are deduced. With considering some fibers breaks simultaneously and the influenced-length of the random crack cores increasing with the number of broken fibers, evolvement probability algorithms of a random crack core are developed based on the perfect evolvement process. At last, the longitudinal tensile strengths of unidirectional composites are predicted by the random crack core model, and the result shows that the random crack core model is more accurate than the classical theoretical models.     

Interfacial separation of fibres in fibre reinforced composites

An analytical model is proposed to predict the ultimate tensile strength of fibre-reinforced composites when the failure is governed by fibre debonding.

The analytical analysis is based on the principle of the compliance method in fracture mechanics with the presence of an interfacial crack at the fibre/matrix interface. The model is developed on the basis of the assumption that both the matrix and the fibre behave elastically and the matrix strain at a zone far from the matrix-fibre interface is equal to the composite strain. Furthermore, it is assumed that a complete bond exists between the fibre and the matrix and that the crack faces are traction free.

It is shown that the separation strain energy release rate for fibre-reinforced composites can be obtained for cases with and without the existence of an interfacial crack. Numerical examples are presented and compared with results obtained in the literature by finite element analyses and from experimental tests. The comparison demonstrates the accuracy and the convergence of the model.     

On the fatigue response of bridging ductile fibers in an MoSi2 intermetallic composite

The fatigue response of bridging molybdenum fibers in an MoSi₂ matrix has been investigated. The composite consists of a MoSi₂-40% SiC matrix reinforced with alumina coated Mo fibers. Previous work demonstrated that the ductility and interfacial debonding of coated Mo fibers promoted high monotonic fracture resistance based on a bridging mechanism. The current study shows that debonding ductile fibers have also the potential to give adequate fatigue crack growth resistance. A tensile test was devised to measure the opening of a bridged crack as a function of number of cycles. The results suggest that if the applied stress is below a threshold stress governed by the flow stress of the ductile fibers, then the crack opening remains constant after a large number of cycles. This information can be used, in principle, to predict the crack growth rate in composites.     

复合材料纤维内含圆盘状裂纹的应力强度因子

复合材料的纤维内含裂纹是造成纤维断裂的一个重要因素。本文采用轴对称多介质问题的边界元方法来分析纤维内含圆盘状裂纹的应力强度因子,以及基体和纤维的模量比、体积比和泊松比等参数对应力强度因子的影响。其分析结果为复合材料纤维断裂形式的破坏机理提供了参考依据。     

A microdebonding study of the high-temperature oxidation embrittlement of a cross-ply glass-ceramic/SiC composite

A constant cross-section specimen with adhesively bonded tabs has been used for an investigation of the high-temperature tensile behavior of a cross-plied glass-ceramic-matrix composite consisting of CAS-II reinforced with Nicalon SiC fiber. Oxidation of the exposed interfaces along matrix cracks in 0 ° plies lowers the composite failure strain at 800 °C to the 0 ° ply matrix-cracking strain. Scanning electron microscopy and microdebonding analysis of the fracture surfaces indicate that the embrittlement process is the result of oxidation of the carbon-rich interphase as the matrix crack encounters 0 ° ply fibers, the interphase subsequently fuses with a higher bond strength and the crack grows through the fibers. Planar cracks grow inwards from the surface, covering the entire fracture surface given enough time (or sufficient strain). Degradation of the fibers does not appear to contribute to the embrittlement. Transverse plies crack at a lower strain than does the matrix in the 0 ° plies. However, it appears that oxygen does not enter 90 ° ply cracks in sufficient quantity to produce oxidation embrittlement, at least up to the 0 ° matrix-cracking strain. The strain to crack the 90 ° plies does not decrease significantly at high temperatures despite the fact that the cracks are primarily in the fiber/matrix interphase as they grow across the 90 ° plies.