Reconnaissance report on geotechnical damage caused by a localized torrential downpour with emergency warning level in Kyushu,Japan

Kumamoto and Kogoshima prefectures are located in the southern Kyushu district of western Japan. In July 2020, a warm, humid air front triggered the delayed rains of the rainy season, resulting in torrential rains in many parts of Japan, especially in Kyushu. In particular, heavy downpours occurred in the southern Kyushu district on July 4th, causing severe damage to much of the infrastructure. Details could not be analyzed as usual because some branch office of local government were also damaged by floods. The spatial distribution of precipitation in the Kuma River basin, in the southern part of Kumamoto, was characterized by the uniformity of 400–500 mm on July 3rd and 4th. Finally, emergency warnings of torrential rain were issued for the southern Kumamoto and the northern Kagoshima Prefectures by Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) at 4:50 a.m., July 4th, 2020. Then, the active rain front gradually shifted towards northern Kyushu. Again, torrential rain fell on northern Kyushu in the afternoon due to a stagnant rainy season front, and the JMA issued an emergency warning for a localized torrential downpour for parts of Fukuoka, Saga and Nagasaki prefectures at 4:30 pm. Gradually, the damage status involving geodisasters such as several types of slope failures, road subsidence, damage of the river levee was reported by local governments in each area where there had been emergency warnings.Based on the brief report of the pre-investigation team from the Kyushu branch of the Japan Geotechnical Society (JGS) in the first week after the disaster on July 4th, the geo-research teams investigated the following: 1) landslides; 2) damaged roads; 3) damaged river levees, and 4) any geotechnical infrastructures which were partially damaged and may be even more severely damaged by the next torrential rain. This reconnaissance report introduces the geological features in Kyushu, the analysis of precipitation distribution and geotechnical damages on the slope failures, road failures and river embankments based on reports obtained from July 4th to August 31st, 2020.     

Logit model for river levee stability evaluation considering the flood return period

Probabilistic models of the binary logit model for both middle/small and large-scale levees are presented for the evaluation of the stability of river levees. Stability can be expressed as the probability of collapse of a levee as estimated by this logit model. The expectation cost (sum of the damage risk potential plus cost of restoring the levee) is adopted for the comprehensive evaluation of river levees where the application is limited to damage done to the levee itself and excludes damage to human life and property. This method, therefore, can be used to determine appropriate types of improvements. The evaluation is statistical and requires a large amount of data including data about non-damaged levees. To circumvent this, we consider the probability of a flood and its return period and show that a practical probability of levee damage actually occuring must be calculated using a combination of the logit model and the return period.     

Survey report on damage caused by 2019 Typhoon Hagibis in Marumori Town,Miyagi Prefecture,Japan

Typhoon Hagibis struck Japan on October 12–13, 2019. There was substantial damage over a wide area including the Tohoku region. In particular, Marumori Town, an urban area in Miyagi Prefecture that includes a town hall, was flooded due to heavy rain. The maximum cumulative rainfall and hourly rainfall measured in the town were over 600 and 70 mm, respectively. Heavy rain caused river flooding and landslides throughout the town, resulting in 10 deaths and one missing person. There was also substantial damage to the infrastructure, such as roads, railways, and river levees. The authors performed a field survey immediately after the disaster, and analyzed the observed data. Most levee breaches occurred due to overflow. A breached levee that failed in an unusual direction, namely, a failure which took place from the landside toward the waterside, was also observed. Landslides were not only caused by the amount of rainfall, but also by geological and topographical factors. Roads and railways were damaged by both river flooding and landslides. While both river flooding and landslides occurred in the Usudaira community, which is in the middle reaches of the Gofukuya River, there were no deaths or missing persons. This should be an important case for future disaster mitigation.     

Seismic stability of embankments subjected to pre-deformation due to foundation consolidation

It has been reported that the major cause of earthquake damage to embankments on level ground surfaces is liquefaction of foundation soil. A few case histories, however, suggest that river levees resting on non-liquefiable foundation soil have been severely damaged if the foundation soil is highly compressible, such as thick soft clay and peat deposits. A large number of such river levees were severely damaged by the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku earthquake. A detailed inspection of the dissected damaged levees revealed that the base of the levees subsided in a bowl shape due to foundation consolidation. The liquefaction of a saturated zone, formed at the embankment base, is considered the prime cause of the damage. The deformation of the levees, due to the foundation consolidation which may have resulted in a reduction in stress and the degradation of soil density, is surmised to have contributed as an underlying mechanism. In this study, a series of centrifuge tests is conducted to experimentally verify the effects of the thickness of the saturated zone in embankments and of the foundation consolidation on the seismic damage to embankments. It is found that the thickness of the saturated zone in embankments and the drainage boundary conditions of the zone have a significant effect on the deformation of the embankments during shaking. For an embankment on a soft clay deposit, horizontal tensile strain as high as 6% was observed at the zone above the embankment base and horizontal stress was approximately half that of the embankment on stiff foundation soil. Crest settlement and the deformation of the embankment during shaking were larger for the embankment subjected to deformation due to foundation consolidation.     

Reconnaissance report on geotechnical damage caused by 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi earthquake with JMA seismic intensity 7

The 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi earthquake with the JMA seismic intensity of 7 occurred at a central south part of Hokkaido, Japan at 3:08 a.m. on September 6, 2018. Considering the social importance of this historical earthquake-induced geo-disaster, the Japanese Geotechnical Society (JGS) organized a “JGS Survey Team for Geotechnical Disasters in Hokkaido, Japan Induced by the 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi earthquake,” mainly comprised of experts from the industry and academia of the Hokkaido branch of JGS. The aim of the survey team was to investigate the phenomena and factors which contributed to disaster recovery and disaster prevention/mitigation from both short- and mid- to long-term perspectives, and to provide academic advice to related government organizations. Based on the results of the site investigations conducted by the JGS survey team (JGS, 2019), this report provides a summary of the geotechnical damage caused by 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi earthquake by presenting the detail of strong seismic motion and a various types of geo-disasters which occurred due to the earthquake. Furthermore, this report highlights future research issues on disaster prevention/mitigation in Hokkaido considering the features of the geo-disasters attributed to the earthquake.     

Disaster report on geotechnical damage in Miyagi Prefecture,Japan caused by Typhoon Hagibis in 2019

Heavy rains brought about by Typhoon Hagibis (Typhoon No. 19) in October 2019 caused great damage to the Kanto and Tohoku regions of Japan. In the Tohoku region, the rainfall was particularly high in the coastal areas of Fukushima, Miyagi, and Iwate Prefectures. In this disaster report, focus is placed on the geotechnical damage in the northern and central areas of Miyagi Prefecture. In northern Miyagi, a levee failure occurred due to overflow; the possible reasons for the breakage are discussed. In central Miyagi, a slope failure occurred due to heavy rain which led to a river revetment erosion failure; this is also discussed in the present report.     

双层地基上堤身的渗流计算

黏土层覆盖下卧砂层的双层地基,在冲积平原的江河两侧普遍存在。对于双层堤基的渗流计算,已有相应于各种边界条件下的系统理论解;至于相应的堤本身的渗流计算,迥异于均质堤基和不透水堤基条件下的分析计算,理论解空缺。先按双层堤基计算出堤身下砂层的承压水位,堤身中点断面的水位非常接近承压水位;据此,并为便于求解,将整体堤身从中点断面分开为上下游两部分,每一部分的上下游边界视为延伸至无穷远;再应用保角变换法分别求出堤身上下游部分的渗流理论解。对于堤身上游坡1∶3、下游坡出逸点以下1∶5在中国常见的坡比,作出具体的数值计算和算例计算;堤身的下游部分为安全分析的重点,为应用方便计,根据详细的数值计算结果,提出一系列有一定精度的拟合式。经电拟试验结果比较,这一简化理论解的精度可靠,此外,论文的计算分析结果完全可推广至地表为黏土层覆盖的多层堤基上的堤身的渗流计算,也可推广至其它坡比的条件。     

Levee damage and revetment erosion by the 2019 Typhoon Hagibis in the Chikuma River,Japan

Due to Typhoon Hagibis (Typhoon No. 19) in October 2019, also known as the Reiwa 1 East Japan Typhoon, many parts of the Chikuma River’s levee in Nagano Prefecture were damaged. There were instances of levee collapse due to overtopping, and an electric railway bridge also collapsed when an eroded revetment broke. In the present study, these disasters were investigated.The investigation considered both the geology - geomechanics and the hydraulics of the levee collapse due to overtopping. The results suggest that the most significant factor in the collapse of the levee was structural weakness. There were cases in which the tenacity of a levee was improved by taking simple measures against seepage. It was found that the bridge abutments washed away mainly because the river levee became a water-colliding front due to changes in the water route following the erosion of a sandbar in the process of river level decline after the peak.     

Load Transfer by Soil Arching in Pile-Supported Embankments

Piles have been used to support unsymmetrical surcharges due to embankments or backfills on soft grounds. The unsymmetrical surcharges can be transferred by embankment piles to a firm layer below soft grounds according to mobilizing soil arching in pile-supported embankments or backfills. Two kinds of model tests such as the soil arching test and the load transfer test were performed to investigate, respectively, the configuration of the soil arch and the loads transferred on piles in pile-supported embankments. In these model tests, model piles were installed in several rows below sand fills, and the heads of piles in each row were connected with cap beams. The soil arch showed a configuration of a semi hollow cylinder, whose diameter was equal to the space between the outer edges of two cap beams and thickness was equal to the width of the cap beams. Based on the configuration of the soil arch defined by the soil arching test, a theoretical analysis was carried out to predict the loads transferred on the piles according to mobilizing soil arching in pile-supported embankments. The equation presented by the theoretical analysis could consider the effect of various factors affecting on the loads transferred on the cap beams; the loads depended on space between cap beams, width of cap beams, height and strength parameters of embankment fills, etc. The loads predicted by the presented equation showed good agreement with those measured in not only the presented test but also the previous test. Finally, the presented theoretical analysis was compared with the previous theoretical analyses on soil arching and its differences from the previous theories were discussed.     

Geo-environmental issues induced by the 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake and tsunami

The 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake of March 11, 2011, caused devastating geotechnical and geo-environmental issues mainly in the coastal area of the Tohoku and North-Kanto Regions, Japan. As a result of the earthquake and subsequent tsunami, approximately 23,000 Gg (23,000,000 t) of disaster debris was generated, with more than 12 million m³ of tsunami deposits left in the flooded area. The geotechnical utilization of the soil fraction in the disaster debris and tsunami deposits has presented a huge challenge to geotechnical engineers since (1) the clearance of debris and tsunami deposits is an urgent task which must be completed within a few years and (2) although a large amount of waste-mixed soil can be used in the construction of new embankments and levees to protect the coast from future tsunamis, their geotechnical properties have temporal and spatial variations. This paper summarizes the current status on the generation, clearance, and treatment and utilization of disaster debris and tsunami deposits from geotechnical and geo-environmental viewpoints. In addition, the environmental monitoring data on soil and groundwater quality conducted over the affected area is briefly reviewed. The results of several wide-area monitoring efforts conducted by different organizations indicate that no significant soil or groundwater contamination has occurred. However, the localized contamination near industrial plants where toxic chemicals leaked due to the earthquake and tsunami needs to be carefully taken into consideration during future revival and redevelopment works. Another serious geo-environmental issue is the management of the radioactive contamination of surface soils caused by the accident at the Fukushima First Nuclear Power Plant. This paper summarizes the distributions and expected behaviours of radioactive Caesium in soils and groundwater, and outlines the possible remediation options for dealing with this contamination.     

Lessons for countermeasures using earth structures against tsunami obtained in the 2011 Off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake

Since many infrastructures, such as sea walls, sand beaches, forests, etc., were severely damaged or destroyed by the tsunami that occurred due to the 2011 Off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake, it is said that the resistant functions of the above structures against tsunami attacks did not perform well. However, some structures are known to have resisted the tsunami, based on field surveys conducted after the earthquake by the authors and others; and thus, the resistant functions of those infrastructures against tsunami should be estimated more properly. This paper focuses on earth structures, including river levees and road embankments, both damaged and undamaged, at 13 sites in Miyagi Prefecture, Chiba Prefecture, and Ibaraki Prefecture. They have been investigated through field surveys and other related data, such as satellite photographs taken before and/or after the tsunami. Furthermore, 10 dug pools, eroded by the flood stream on the back side of sea walls and banks during the tsunami, are also investigated to clarify their effects against tsunami attacks for use as future hardware countermeasures. Based on the above field investigations, several important lessons on hardware countermeasures against tsunami, using earth structures, are discussed. And, performance-based design concepts for reconstruction after this earthquake and for the reduction of future tsunami damage are discussed and proposed.     

探析岩土工程水文地质勘察技术

水文地质问题作为岩土工程勘察内容,在岩土工程基础设计、地质灾害防治、工程勘察方面有积极的促进作用。本文说明了岩土工程勘察特点、地下水对工程的影响及岩土工程开展水文地质勘察主要技术手段、勘测水文地质参数常用方法等。     

Reconnaissance report on damage in and around river levees caused by the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku earthquake

The gigantic earthquake on March 11, 2011, caused significant damage in and around river levees over a vast area. Because the amount of damage was on such a huge scale, emergency restoration was difficult and many lessons were learnt. The cause of the damage in most cases was liquefaction either in the foundation or in the levee body, and the latter was recognized as a new technical problem. Many levees in the coastal area experienced the combined effects of the tsunami with the co-seismic subsidence of the earth's crust. Among the many examples of damage, one positive issue was that damage mitigation measures such as drainage and soil improvement were found to be effective. The present text addresses the findings and lessons learnt from the authors' emergency activities after the quake.     

堤防失事风险分析和风险管理研究

基于堤防渗透破坏和岸坡滑动失稳风险的数学模型，提出了场地砂土地震液化和堤防失事综合风险分析的数学模型，以及堤防风险管理的概念；以南京市板桥河左岸堤防加固工程为例，应用风险分析理论和方法对该段堤防渗透破坏风险、岸坡滑动失稳风险、场地砂土地震液化风险以及堤防失事综合风险进行了分析研究；通过1995年板桥河左岸堤防典型破圩实例建立整个板桥河堤防渗透破坏风险率监界值、岸坡滑动失稳风险率临界值以及堤防失事综合风险率临界值；同时基于风险分析的结果和所建立的风险率临界值，根据风险管理的理论，针对板桥河左岸堤防加固工程提出降低风险的措施，对堤防汛期洪水位运行管理提出建议。其理论、方法、思路和结论可供同类工程借鉴。     

Centrifugal tests on minimization of flood-induced deformation of levees by steel drainage pipes

The rise in the river water level in a levee raises the phreatic surface. This facilitates the development of positive pore water pressure in the region below the phreatic surface, and consequently, reduces the shear strength of the soil. Steel drainage pipes that can provide both drainage and reinforcement functions could be a better option for levee protection against flooding compared to the traditional method of protection which can provide only one or the other of these functions. This paper presents the results of a series of centrifugal tests for six cases conducted to investigate the effectiveness of newly designed steel drainage pipes for minimizing the flood-induced deformation of levees. The test results reveal that the installation of these steel drainage pipes (1) allows the levee to withstand a higher flood water head and extended flood duration and (2) is effective for limiting the continuation of the slip line in the slope. The quick drainage of the seepage water can restrict the development of positive pore water pressure in the slope, and the mobilization of the axial force in the pipes minimizes the flood-induced deformation of the levee.     

Collapse of concrete-covered levee under composite effect of overflow and seepage

During the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami of 2011, enormous coastal levees collapsed as a result of tsunami overflows. Concrete-covered levees, where concrete blocks are used to protect levees made of soil, showed a specific failure mode in which back slope blocks and internal soils were dislodged. Although several hydraulic experiments have been conducted in an attempt to understand the failure mechanism, the complexity of the failure requires that both hydro-dynamical and geotechnical points of view be taken into account for a deeper understanding. This study uses a centrifuge to identify the failure behavior of levees from those points of view. The centrifuge can reproduce the stress, water pressure, and overflow velocity of the prototype-scale ground. Overflowing at sufficient time periods was produced in the centrifuge by generating differences in water height for seaside and landside areas. The test results showed that the levees collapsed due to a combination of the effect of water flow on the back slope and seepage inside the levees. In addition, the effectiveness of several proposed countermeasures for preventing collapse was confirmed.     

台后路基填土对桥台桩基础影响的有限元分析

针对在湿陷性黄土地区一座高填方路段上的桥梁，建立了桥台桩基础三维弹塑性有限元分析模型，采用ANSYS软件进行模拟，分析了路堤在填方高度不同、基础在不同桩长、不同桩径的条件下，桥台基础沉降的变化情况，探索了路基的填方高度、基础的桩长、桩径的变化对桥台桩基沉降的影响规律，得到关于桥台基础设计有益的结论。     

试论堤坝的垂直防渗技术

病险堤坝处治中,形成了一些比较成熟的治理技术,积累了丰富的经验。垂直防渗技术已广泛用于堤坝的除险加固,是病险堤坝工程的主要防渗加固措施。工程中,常用的垂直防渗技术有:灌浆法、防渗墙法、高压喷射注浆法、深层搅拌法和垂直铺塑等。然而,每项垂直防渗技术都有一定的针对性和局限性,各种堤坝病害的产生机理、出现部位和破坏程度也不尽相同。为确保病险堤坝的防渗处治效果,必须加强防渗技术的研究,选择科学、经济、合理的综合治理方案。本文总结分析了国内外病险堤坝的失事原因及其堤坝失事与渗透破坏的关系,论述了堤坝的渗透破坏型式,分析了各种垂直防渗加固技术的研究成果和应用现状等。     

Geotechnical investigations and preliminary support design for the Geçilmez tunnel: A case study along the Black Sea coastal highway,Giresun, northern Turkey

This study encompasses geotechnical investigations, stability assessments and design of the preliminary support systems for the Geçilmez tunnel which is constructed in Giresun for the improvement of the highway along the Black Sea coast. During the study, a detailed geological map of the study area was prepared and the geotechnical characteristics of the rock masses were determined. The rock mass classification of the tunnel grounds was performed by utilizing the RMR method, Q system, NATM and the Geological Strength Index (GSI) classification which was followed by performing a geotechnical investigation along the tunnel grounds in order to obtain the geotechnical parameters for the stability analyses of the portals and of the tunnel. Lugeon (water pressure) tests were performed in order to determine the permeability of the rock mass along the tunnel. The appropriate geotechnical parameters were utilized in order to perform rock slope stability kinematic and limit equilibrium analyses at the portals of the tunnel. Empirical preliminary tunnel support systems according to the RMR method, Q-system and NATM were determined. The structurally controlled instabilities within the tunnel sections were identified and the required preliminary tunnel support systems were determined to overcome these instabilities. Regarding the structurally controlled rock failures along the probable weak zones and lineaments (i.e., inactive probable faults or shear zones) during tunneling, wedge stability analysis was utilized to determine the potential wedge failures that could possibly occur during tunneling and to apply the necessary support systems for stabilizing any wedge failure in the tunnel. The induced stress distributions and deformations in the rock mass surrounding the tunnel grounds was investigated and the interaction of the support systems with the rock mass was analyzed by using numerical (finite element) modeling. In the finite element analyses it was assumed that the rock mass behaved as a fractured rock mass since the tunnel grounds were moderate to highly jointed. The objective of the numerical modeling was to check the validity of the empirical preliminary tunnel support requirements and also to compare the results with those obtained through assuming structurally controlled failures during tunneling. The performance of the preliminary tunnel support was also validated on the basis of thrust–moment interaction analyses. The results of the structurally controlled failure analyses, numerical analyses and thrust–moment analyses were compared in an attempt to determine the preliminary tunnel support systems to stabilize the Geçilmez tunnel.     

地质雷达在隧道检测中的应 用简

地质雷达是一种广泛应用于地质勘探、埋设物探查、岩土检测的电磁波探测方法,具有高效、便捷、准确、直观的特点.本文结合实际地下电缆隧道工程的检测项目,具体地描述了使用地质雷达探测分析地基土体状况的方法,证实了地质雷达探测和检测方法结合其他检测和分析手段对隧道的灾害隐患排查、实施超前保护措施以及受损处修复加固工作具有很强的指导作用,非常适于地下工程岩土体的定期普查、灾害预防以及损坏修补.