Stress situations, birth order, and psychological symptoms.

Recent conflicting findings raise the issue of whether observed differences in levels of psychological distress of 1st and later borns are a function of their contemporary social situation, or of basic personality defect in 1 or the other group. Hypotheses which might explain conflicting findings are derived from Schachter's work: among Ss exposed to stressors, 1st borns will show more symptoms when social isolation is enforced, and later borns when social interaction is enforced. These hypotheses are tested in a socially isolating sensory deprivation study, and in a community sample including crowded slum dwellers. Both hypotheses are supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Birth order and personality.

Investigated 6 personality variables for birth order differences in 339 male and 447 female and 210 male and 266 female undergraduates. Ss in the former were studied for dogmatism, ambiguity tolerance, and rigidity. Measures of (a) internal-external locus of control, and (b) social responsibility were administered to the latter. Both samples were given the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Data were analyzed in 2 * 3 factorial analysis of variance design: 2 levels of sex and 3 levels of birth order (only child, 1st born, and later born). It was found that (a) later borns from 2-child families were more external than those from larger families; (b) later borns from 2-child families were more external than only children or 1st borns from 2-child families; (c) only children and 1st borns were more socially responsible than later borns; (d) 1st borns were more rigid than only-child and later-born Ss; and (e) only-female Ss manifested higher need for approval than only males. (26 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Stress Situations, Birth Order, and Psychological Symptoms": Erratum.

Reports an error in the original article by Barbara Snell Dohrenwend and Bruce P. Dohrenwend (Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1966 [6], 71(3) 215-223). The first sentence of the first paragraph on page 222 is incorrect. The correct version is printed here. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1966-08886-001.) Recent conflicting findings raise the issue of whether observed differences in levels of psychological distress of 1st and later borns are a function of their contemporary social situation, or of basic personality defect in 1 or the other group. Hypotheses which might explain conflicting findings are derived from Schachter's work: among Ss exposed to stressors, 1st borns will show more symptoms when social isolation is enforced, and later borns when social interaction is enforced. These hypotheses are tested in a socially isolating sensory deprivation study, and in a community sample including crowded slum dwellers. Both hypotheses are supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Birth order of volunteers for sensory deprivation.

Published data have indicated the preponderance of 1st-born individuals among volunteer Ss in experiments involving group interaction and cooperation. The results were explained on the basis of strong affiliative tendencies among 1st borns. This report shows a similarly high proportion of 1st borns among individuals volunteering for a sensory deprivation study which called for total isolation of the S, and suggests that an explanation based only on affiliation motives may not be adequate for an understanding of the overrepresentation of 1st borns among volunteer Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Birth order and identification.

Observations drawn from different sources suggest that as compared with later-born individuals, the 1st born participates in a more intense mothering relationship, has a shorter duration of interaction with siblings, turns to his parents in the absence of other role models, is exposed to greater parental expectations regarding responsibility and achievement, develops a harsher superego, and is more inclined to choose occupations involving a parent-surrogate role—in short, that he is more adult oriented than later borns. It was hypothesized, therefore, that 1st borns would demonstrate greater internalization of parental norms and values. Results supported the hypothesis for inhibitory-disciplinarian behaviors but not for emotionally supportive-rewarding behaviors. Implications for processes of identification and super-ego development are considered. (31 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Birth order and scholastic aptitude.

It was hypothesized that entering 1st-born college students should earn higher mean scores on the Mathematics Aptitude test (MAT) and the Verbal Aptitude test (VAT) of the College Entrance Examination Board than would later borns. Data on 1,878 students entering in 1960 and 1961 were available though only those (80% of the total) coming from families of 2, 3, and 4 children entered in the study. The hypothesis held for female students on the VAT (t of 3.45), but the corresponding t of 1.59 favoring the higher mean score of first-born males on the VAT is not statistically significant. It is concluded that 1st borns in college may be verbally more able than later borns. In mathematical aptitude, no differences appear. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alcoholism, birth order, and family size.

On the basis of Schachter's findings relating affiliation during anxiety to birth order it was predicted that later borns and persons from large families should be overrepresented among alcoholics and that the number of alcoholics within each family size should increase with increasing birth order. First borns were expected to have significantly more therapeutic contacts than later borns. It was pointed out that Schachter's analyses, based on Bakan's data, lacked, among other things, a correction for family size. When this correction was employed with birth order and family size data from a sample of 242 treated alcoholics, the only hypothesis supported was that relating to an overrepresentation of persons from large families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive and personality factors in suicidal behavior.

Studied the role of aggression in suicidal behavior. The personality functioning of 20 suicide attempters, 20 nonsuicidal psychiatric controls, and 20 suicide completers was assessed using the Rorschach. There were 11 female and 9 male 21–63 yr old Ss in each group. M. Feffer's role-taking task (see record 1960-04380-001) provided a test of the cognitive functioning of the 1st 2 groups. All 3 groups experienced the breakthrough of more aggressive than libidinal drive derivatives, but no significant differences between the groups were found. Only the suicide attempters' aggressive responses were more primitive than their libidinal responses. On the role-taking task, the suicidal group's cognitive functioning in the neutral situation was superior to their functioning in the aggressive one. The control group yielded no such difference. The suicidal group's performance in the aggressive situation was also significantly inferior to the control group. Results are interpreted as underscoring the role of cognition in symptom choice. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Birth order and scholastic aptitude and achievement.

Tested the stability of findings by W. D. Altus (see 39:5) in a less selective population, and studied the relationship between birth order and academic success as measured by high school GPA and graduation from college. Results from 1st-born female freshmen at a state university failed to support the hypothesis that 1st-born females would have higher Scholastic Aptitude Test verbal and math test means, and higher high school GPAs. The hypothesis that 1st-born females would graduate more frequently than later borns was not clearly supported, but results were in the predicted direction. Findings supported those of Altus. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Birth order and sociometric choice.

It is hypothesized that sociometric choice is, in part, affected by social factors. One evaluates his own feelings about a person by comparing his feelings with those of others. First borns, who are characterized as dependent, are assumed to be more influenced by such social determinants of sociometric choice than are later borns. Implications of these assumptions are tested in a sociometric study of 15 fraternities and sororities. Within these groups, first borns choose more popular people and exhibit greater similarity of sociometric choice than do later borns. In addition, the data indicate that first borns are considerably less popular than are later borns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Outer-directedness in the problem solving of normal and retarded children.

2 studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that the high incidence of failure experienced by retardates results in their employing an outer-directed style of problem solving. In Study I 20 retarded and 20 normal children matched on MA experienced either a success or a failure condition on 3 games and were then tested on 2 imitation tasks. Retardates were found to be more imitative than normals. All the children were found to be more imitative following the failure than the success condition. In Study II 20 normal and 20 retarded children matched on MA and divided into experimental and control groups performed on 2 object-assembly and 1 block-board task. In the experimental condition E engaged in certain behaviors that if attended to would interfere with S's performance on the 1st object-assembly task and facilitate performance on the 2nd object-assembly task, and which would provide S with a response that could be imitated on the block-board game. As predicted, the retarded experimental group did poorer than the normal experimental group on the 1st object-assembly task, but was superior to the normals on the 2nd object assembly task. They also showed a tendency to be more imitative on the block-board game, and they made more glances toward E. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral preferences in response to social injustice: The effects of group permeability and social identity salience.

Examined features of an intergroup context that can affect people's preferred responses to a situation of social injustice. 90 undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions of group permeability (open, token, or closed) and 1 of 2 conditions of social identity salience (not salient or salient). It was predicted on the basis of social identity theory that individualistic responses would be preferred to a collective response when group boundaries were more open but not when they were closed. It was also expected that under conditions of group impermeability, collective behavior would be preferred to a greater extent by individuals for whom social identity was salient than by individuals for whom it was not salient. The results, which generally supported these hypotheses, are discussed in terms of social psychological theories of intergroup relations and also with regard to their potential practical implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preparation of lower-class patients for expressive group psychotherapy.

Studied 48 lower-class psychiatric inpatients, all 1st admissions who were unsophisticated in regard to psychiatric treatment, during their 1st 2 wks of involvement in daily group psychotherapy. 25 were selected randomly for an individual clinically oriented anticipatory socialization interview, geared to fostering realistic expectations about the group therapy situation they were about to enter. The other 23 Ss were left naive. Marked quantitative and qualitative differences were found in the group therapy participation of prepared Ss, reflecting a more accelerated and adequate working alliance. Results are discussed in terms of clinical theory and research, particularly with regard to common difficulties encountered in psychotherapy with lower-class patients. (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support predict 5-year outcome in 1st-episode schizophrenia.

Investigations of social support in schizophrenia have been relatively sparse. In this research, patients with 1st-episode schizophrenia or affective psychosis were asked to describe supportive social relationships immediately prior to their 1st lifetime treatment contact and were interviewed 18 months and 5 years later for assessment of their social and occupational functioning. The results indicated that 18-month adaptive functioning was lower than in the year prior to 1st treatment contact but at 5 years rose above that seen both at baseline and 18 months. Moreover, social support from nonfamily members of the social network predicted 5-year adaptive functioning in the schizophrenia (n?=?54) group but not in the affective psychosis (n?=?55) group. Support from family did not predict 5-year outcome in either group. Together, these findings replicate and extend earlier findings that social support predicts outcome in 1st-episode schizophrenia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Person?×?Situation interactions: Choice of situations and congruence response models.

Examined 2 models of person?×?situation interactions using 42 undergraduates. The 1st model (H. A. Murray, 1938) predicts that there is a relation between personality and the situations people naturally choose to be in; the 2nd model (H. J. Eysenck, 1952) predicts that when there is congruence between the situation and personality, a person will experience more positive and less negative affect. These models were investigated by using mood and activity reports gathered on 3,512 occasions sampled randomly from Ss' everyday lives. Situational dimensions were related to some but not all personality variables investigated. Need for order predicted choice of typical situations, and extraversion correlated with time spent recreating socially. However, it was found that Ss did not spend more time in those settings in which they experienced more positive emotions nor less time in those situations in which they experienced more negative affect. In terms of the affect–congruence model, several predicted relations were found, but several others did not reach significance. The failure of the affect–congruence model to be consistently supported was probably because Ss' affect was relatively consistent across situations. Results suggest that although some theoretically meaningful person?×?situation interactions do occur, they are not necessarily strong or easily predictable. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult height in girls with idiopathic true precocious puberty

GnRH analogs are used to suppress pituitary-gonadal activity in children with true precocious puberty. The indications for therapy in this situation are not established, as some girls have a slow evolutive form, and the capacity of GnRH analogs to preserve the adult height has not been evaluated. This study analyzes the growth and adult heights of 2 groups of girls with idiopathic true precocious puberty, 1 with a predicted height of 155 cm or less (group 1, 19 cases) and the other with a predicted height of more than 155 cm (group 2, 15 cases). Group 1 patients were treated with a long-acting GnRH analog (D-Trp6-GnRH), and group 2 patients were followed without therapy. Group 1 showed greater clinical signs of estrogenization, vaginal maturation index (P < 0.03), plasma estradiol (P < 0.0004), and ratio of LH/FSH peaks (P < 0.01) at the initial evaluation than did group 2. The mean target heights were similar (difference, 0.9 cm). In group 1, the adult height (159 +/- 1.1 cm) was greater than the predicted height before therapy (152 +/- 1.4 cm; P < 0.0001). The difference between the adult height and the predicted height before therapy (mean, 6.5 cm) correlated positively with the bone age advance (P < 0.01), negatively with the predicted height (P < 0.05), and positively with the difference between the target and predicted heights (P < 0.001) before therapy. In group 2, the adult height (162 +/- 1.4 cm) was similar to the predicted height at the initial evaluation (162.5 +/- 1.4 cm). Adult heights correlated with target height in group 1 and with predicted height at the initial evaluation in group 2. In conclusion, some girls with true precocious puberty and poor adult height prediction who are treated with GnRH analog achieve an adult height more comparable to their target height. However, the lack of effect on height in girls with predicted height at the onset of therapy similar to their target height and preservation of the growth potential in the slow evolutive forms suggest that these forms might not require immediate therapy. Careful follow-up before therapy may be a better way of evaluating their natural course.     

Family size and birth order as determinants of scholastic aptitude and achievement in a sample of eighth graders.

Tested the hypothesis that there exists a meaningful relationship between birth order, family size, and scholastic aptitude and achievement in 318 8th graders. It was found that (a) 1st-borns were characterized by higher IQ scores than later borns, and (b) family size was not significantly related to any of the measures used in this study. A Birth Order * Family Size interaction was found for a measure of scholastic aptitude and for some measures of scholastic achievement. This interaction was a function of increasing differentiation between 1st- and later borns with increasing family size. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Once is enough: Causal reasoning from a single instance.

Points out that research on how people make predictions has focused on abstract rules and schemata. However, anecdotal evidence suggests that people often make predictions and explain events by comparing their situation to a single, previously experienced event. In 2 studies that examined this possibility, 161 undergraduates learned about members of a foreign culture, some of whom performed a rule-governed behavior. Ss then predicted the behavior of other members of the culture. One member was similar to an individual who performed the behavior, but the rule predicted that this new member would not perform the behavior. Both studies showed that in making their predictions, Ss relied on the similarity of this member to the previously encountered individual. Study 1 also demonstrated that people were increasingly likely to use a single, similar instance as the rule governing the behavior became more complex. Results emphasize the role that concrete experience plays in people's predictions. Further, they suggest that when people learn a novel behavior, they may, at least initially, learn a set of examples rather than a rule. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)