Comparison between pulsed and modulated thermography in glass–epoxy laminates

Infrared (IR) thermography is a two-dimensional, non-contact technique which can be usefully employed in non-destructive evaluation of materials. Basically, two different approaches are possible: traditional pulse thermography (PT) and modulated (or lock-in) thermography (MT). The attention of the present work is focused on the peculiar aspects, which characterise the two different techniques. Tests are carried out by considering glass–epoxy specimens and the results obtained, by employing either PT or MT, are compared. The capability of each technique, to detect a defect and give precise information about size, depth and thermal resistance of the defect, is analysed. The advantages and disadvantages of using these techniques are discussed in order to assess the fundamental requirements for the most appropriate choice in quality control processes.     

Defect characterization in pulsed thermography: a statistical method compared with Kohonen and Perceptron neural networks

Pulsed thermography is a popular NDE technique. In this paper, a novel statistical processing method is proposed and compared in term of defect detection and characterization with two common neural network architectures (Perceptron and Kohonen). Interest is on characterization of aluminum corrosion. The statistical method and neural network architectures use temperature, phase and amplitude data with phase and amplitude data coming from the so-called pulsed phase thermography approach. The statistical method reveals interesting performance over tested neural networks, especially in the ’interference technique,’ a combined ’two-step’ approach: detection with phase and characterization with amplitude. Theory is discussed and examples of results are presented.     

Thermographic detection of fatigue damage of reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steels

An IR (IR) thermography technique, as a nondestructive evaluation technique, was applied to investigate the fatigue damage of reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steels during 20 Hz and 1000 Hz fatigue testing. Five stages of temperature profile were observed: an initial increase of the average specimen temperature, a region of temperature decrease, an equilibrium (steady-state) temperature region, an abrupt increase of the temperature, and a drop of temperature following specimen failure. The relationship between the temperature, stress-strain state, and fatigue behavior is discussed. Both thermodynamic and heat-transfer theories are applied to model the observed temperature variation during fatigue. The stress-strain state of the material has been back-calculated from the observed temperature profiles. The predicted and measured temperature evolutions and mechanical behavior during fatigue were found to be in good agreement. Thermography appears to provide a useful method of investigating the stress-strain behavior during fatigue.     

Non‐destructive detection of corrosion applied to steel and galvanized steel coated with organic paints by the pulsed phase thermography

Organic coatings in the automobile industry have to resist corrosion and mechanical damage from stone chipping. Currently, no tool is established in industrial non‐destructive applications for analyzing the damage of stone‐impacts and the following corrosion after accelerated corrosion tests. Measurement methods such as the scanning Kelvin probe can analyze the corrosion progress in a detailed manner, but with a long measurement time. The pulsed phase thermography (PPT) is a non‐destructive tool to analyze inhomogeneities and defects in materials, with a huge field of applications existing. The present work shows advances in using the PPT to detect propagation of corrosion under coatings. Physical principles of the mechanism of the corrosion detection under coatings are described. Results of measurements of organic coatings on carbon steel as well as of organic coated galvanized steel show the corrosion propagation. Influencing factors to the measurement such as the thickness of the coatings are investigated, but no significant effect on the quality of the analysis was found. The corrosion progress can be monitored by the PPT fast and reliably. The achieved results correlate with the theoretical basis and the test results after surface characterization and destructive analysis of samples.     

Periscope infrared thermography for local wall thinning in tubes

In this paper, a novel way to inspect local wall thinning in metal tubes with infrared thermography has been demonstrated. The first of its kind method utilizes a periscope-like reflector located deep inside a tube to mirror the radiated heat that flows across the tube thickness to an IR camera positioned outside the tube. Localized wall thinning was represented by partially drilled holes of different depths on a tube, of inner diameter 82 mm and outer diameter 91 mm. Feasibility studies were carried out through simulations using a finite element model. Experiments were performed to determine the thermal diffusivity of the material. Remaining thicknesses of the tubes in wall-thinned sections were found to be estimated reasonably well using measured time–temperature profiles obtained by flash method [Parker WJ, Jenkins RJ, Butler CP, Abbott GL. Flash method of determining thermal diffusivity, heat capacity, and thermal conductivity. J Appl Phys 1961;32:1679–84]. The good correlation found between model calculations and measurements vindicated the utility of a model-based approach to applications of pulsed IR thermography.     

Comparison between thermographic techniques for frescoes NDT

The use of infrared thermography in the architectural restoration field is examined. Three samples, made of a support of marble, brick, or tuff, covered with a layer of plaster with inclusions to simulate detachments or cracks in frescoes, are considered. Different techniques: pulse thermography, lateral heating thermography, lock-in or modulated thermography and pulse phase thermography are employed to detect the flaws artificially created; advantages and disadvantages of each technique are discussed. It is found that pulse thermography is easy and fast to use for information about the state of the art treasures, but data may be affected by non-uniform heating and local variation of thermal emission; the lateral heating can help to overcome interference effects due to non-uniform heating but it is more troublesome to use. When the evaluation regards rare art treasures the lock-in technique seems to be the only response since it is able to operate within very low increase of surface temperature; this technique is also able to give information about the material composition. The pulse phase thermography may be used to detect more in depth flaws but it needs higher temperature increase with respect to the ambient temperature and so it is recommended to control, before testing, the temperature sensitivity of the artefact.     

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 材料的疲劳过程是能量耗散的过程,在宏观上表现为热耗散,能量理论是研究材料疲劳行为微观机理和宏观现象的桥梁。文中利用红外热像仪对具有颈缩部分的45号钢试件疲劳过程中的温度变化进行了研究,探讨了影响温度变化的机制,并介绍了快速确定45号钢疲劳极限的方法。实验结果表明,该方法所测得的疲劳极限合理,且该方法具有非接触、便捷、低成本等优点。     

LED optical excitation for the long pulse and lock-in thermographic techniques

High power light emitting diode (LED) arrays have been investigated as excitation sources for long pulse and lock-in thermography. Images of artificial defects in a carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) composite sample are compared, by image contrast signal-to-noise ratio estimates, with those obtained using conventional incandescent flash and lock-in excitation sources. The LED arrays had to be mounted on heat sinks with active cooling in to prevent them exceeding their thermal tolerance. Despite this cooling the LED arrays were still found to emit some IR radiation, although far less than conventional incandescent light sources.     

涡流脉冲热像与长脉冲光热像对铝板中亚表面缺陷检测的对比研究

作为两种新兴的无损检测与评估技术,涡流脉冲热像和长脉冲光热像已广泛应用于多种场合。针对两种技术检测铝平板类结构中存在的亚表面缺陷,开展试验对比研究。在利用主成分分析和K-means聚类实现增强和提取缺陷信息的基础上,定量对比两种热像技术检测不同尺寸人工平底洞缺陷的性能。试验结果表明,涡流脉冲热像和长脉冲光热像分别能从18个缺陷中检测出14个和12个。此外,涡流脉冲热像对埋藏较浅的缺陷更具检测优势而长脉冲光热像对孔径较大的缺陷检测效果更好。     

Investigation on eddy current pulsed thermography to detect hidden cracks on corroded metal surface

This paper explores the feasibility of eddy current pulsed thermography (ECPT) to detect hidden cracks on corroded metal surface without removing the corrosion layer. The detection mechanisms are analyzed by using electromagnetic and heat conduction theories. Experiments are conducted on a metallic bar with three hidden cracks and the validity of ECPT is verified with the analysis of IR images and thermal responses. In order to further improve the detection sensitivity of ECPT, the principal component analysis (PCA) is applied to enhance the features of hidden cracks in the raw IR images by eliminating the effects of uneven corrosion and non-uniform heating. It is found that ECPT combined with PCA provides a convenient and effective way to detect hidden cracks on corroded metal surface.     

Inference of plastic deformation in weldment with parallel cracks from infrared thermography

Tensile tests are carried out by using the welded plate with two parallel cracks. The effects of the residual stress, the hardened zone by welding and the interaction between cracks on the plastic deformation near cracks and the crack opening displacement are examined by the experiment as well as the elasto plastic finite element analysis. A new technique for evaluating nondestructively the plastic deformation near cracks by using the infrared thermography is proposed. The heated region and the temperature rise measured by the thermography are compared with the plastic zone and the work of plastic deformation obtained by the analysis. The validity and the limitations of the application of the infrared thermography to the evaluation of the plastic deformation are discussed.     

平面磨削中工件温度场的直接测温

平面磨削中工件温度场采用红外成像的电荷偶合装置(CCD)测量。在高空问、瞬时条件下红外辐射(IR)温度测量一直是沿磨削试件一侧进行测定试件表面和次表面的温度。用斜面磨削的方法，使磨削深度持续增加，获得了随材料磨除率而改变的磨削温度的变化。这些测量结果与用传统的恒磨除率磨削试验具有良好的相关性。确定了最高温度的位置和值，包括温度梯度。讨论了确定磨削热模型测量的含意及工件的烧伤苗头的预测。     

Determination of thermal diffusivity distribution for three types of materials by transient thermography

In many component applications knowledge of the two-dimensional distribution of material properties within the part is highly desirable as a quality assessment tool. The contour plotting of material properties allows identification of local regions of unacceptable variation for rejection, repair or further analysis. Transient thermography is a rapid, inexpensive, on-line, nondestructive technique that can be used to determine the two-dimensional distribution of material properties. In this paper the transient method of pulsed video thermography (PVT) is studied. Procedures for the parameter normalization and numerical method are combined with experimental data to accurately map the thermal diffusivity distribution over the entire surface of a specimen. Materials whose diffusivity ranged over three orders of magnitude were tested. The accuracy of the PVT results was evaluated by comparing local values with those obtained by standard laser flash diffusivity testing.     

脉冲相位光热辐射测量中的数据拟合处理方法

针对脉冲相位辐射测量中相位分析对时间信号噪声比较敏感的问题,对实验得到的温度-时间数据进行拟合处理.计算结果表明,对数据进行分段拟合(分别采用线性拟合和指数曲线拟合)能得到比较理想的近似函数.傅里叶变换后得到的相频曲线噪声小,相位图像较清晰.并且数据可用拟合函数的系数来表示,从而大大减少数据存储量.另外,通过曲线扩展和插值的方法,从理论上分析了采样频率与窗口长度对相频特性曲线的影响.     

Laser processing of hardmetals: Physical basics and applications

Laser material removal is an effective processing technique for hardmetals, which cannot be machined by chip-removal techniques. The basic physics of the laser–matter interactions and the influence of different laser parameters are discussed, with emphasis on sintered WC–Co specific features. The collateral affected zones and their occurrence mechanisms for laser machining with both nanosecond and femtosecond pulses are discussed. Experiments were carried out with pulsed laser systems operating in IR and UV, with ns and fs pulses and their results endorse the theoretical considerations. The use of direct or indirect laser processing (ns and fs pulses) in the surface engineering of coated/uncoated WC–Co parts is also presented. Subsequently, applications like laser microstructuring of tribological WC–Co surfaces and laser machining of integral chipbreakers are discussed.     

Transient thermography testing of unpainted thermal barrier coating (TBC) systems

Test piece surfaces are sometimes coated with a black, energy absorbing paint before transient thermography is applied. This practice is not acceptable to some thermal barrier coating (TBC) manufacturers and servicers of these systems since thermal barrier coatings are porous so the paint contaminates the coating and it is very difficult and costly to remove. Unfortunately, unpainted TBC surfaces have low emissivity, and after service their colour is usually uneven. The low emissivity gives low signal levels and also problems with reflections of the incident heat pulse, while the variation in emissivity over the surface gives strong variation in the contrast obtained even in the absence of defects. Additionally, the TBC is translucent to mid-wavelength IR radiation which negatively affects the location of disbonds based on the thermal responses. This paper investigates the effects of uneven discolouration of the surface and of IR translucency on the thermal responses. It has been shown that unpainted TBC systems can be inspected reliably by using higher power flash heating equipment assembled with an IR glass filter and a long wavelength IR camera. The paper also shows that the problem with uneven surface emissivity can be overcome by applying 2nd time derivative processing of the log–log surface cooling curves.     

Surface and subsurface integrity in diamond grinding of optical glasses on Tetraform ‘C’

In order to investigate the surface and subsurface integrity of diamond-ground optical glasses, a Tetraform ‘C’ machine tool featuring high close-loop stiffness was used to conduct the ultra-precision machining of fused silica and fused quartz assisted with electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID). An acoustic emission (AE) sensor and a piezoelectric dynamometer were used to monitor the grinding process to correlate the processing characteristics with the generated surface and subsurface integrities, which were characterized by atomic force microscope (AFM), scanning electronic microscope (SEM), and nano-indentation technique. Experimental results showed that for optical glasses the fracture toughness value can be used to predict the machinability while its bigger value always means a better surface and subsurface integrity. During the grinding process of optical glasses, the smaller amplitude and RMS values of AE signal, as well as the smaller grinding forces and the ratio of normal force to tangential force, correspond to a better surface and subsurface integrity. With selected machining parameters and a 6–12 μm grain-sized diamond-grinding wheel, nanometric quality surfaces (Ra<5 nm) with minimal subsurface damage depth (< 0.5 μm) can be generated for fused quartz on Tetraform ‘C’.     

A novel approach for flip chip solder joint inspection based on pulsed phase thermography

Surface mount components have been extensively used in microelectronic packaging. However, it brings great challenge for defect inspection with the development of solder bumps towards ultra-fine pitch and high density. Traditional nondestructive detection methods are insufficient for solder joint assessment due to their own disadvantages. Therefore, it is necessary to explore new methods for solder joint inspection. A novel approach based on the pulsed phase thermography was investigated for identifying the defects of solder joints. In this approach, the test chip was stimulated by a thermal pulse, and the consequent transient response was captured by a commercial thermal imager. The spacial and temporal filtering techniques were adopted to improve the signal to noise ratio. The recorded thermograms were input to an improved median filter with a 5×5 mask, and the temperature evolution of each pixel was extracted and smoothed by the moving average operation. Then the temperature–time curve was fitted with an exponential function. To eliminate emissivity variations and heating non-uniformity, we converted the fitted temperature values in time domain to the phase information in frequency domain using the fast Fourier transform. In low frequency range, the phase–frequency curve of the defect area was differentiated from that of the sound area. The results demonstrate that this approach is effective for identification of the missing bumps, and can be used in the solder joint inspection in high density packaging.     

Quantitative determination of a subsurface defect of reference specimen by lock-in infrared thermography

This paper describes the quantitative determination of the sizes and locations of subsurface defects using lock-in infrared thermography. A phase (or temperature) difference between the defect area and the healthy area indicates the qualitative location and size of the defect. To accurately estimate these parameters, the shearing-phase technique has been employed, where the inspected image is shifted by a certain number of pixels to obtain a shifted image while subtraction of one image from the other gives the shearing-phase distribution. The shearing-phase distribution has maximum, minimum, and zero points that help determine quantitatively the size and location of the subsurface defect. Experimental results for a steel plate with artificial subsurface defects show good agreement with actual values.     

红外热波检测中热像信号重建引起的伪缺陷现象

在脉冲热激励红外热波检测中,热像信号重建技术（TSR）常用来分析和处理试验结果。该方法的特色是可以增加热像序列的空间和时间分辨率,提高信噪比,减少数据量。同时,该方法还能消除某些伪缺陷的干扰,比如脉冲闪光灯和热像仪镜头的反射所带来的伪缺陷。但是TSR是基于对温度变化曲线进行多项式曲线拟合的,而多项式曲线拟合中,拟合阶数和数据长度对拟合结果影响较大,在某些情况下可能会产生伪缺陷。阐述了热波数据重建技术原理,并以试件表面处于热不平衡状态和表面不均匀进行试验的结果来分析由于数据重建技术所产生的伪缺陷。