Analysis of potential fumonisin‐producing Fusarium species in corn products from three main maize‐producing areas in eastern China

BACKGROUND: Fusarium species are common fungal contaminants of maize and a number of them can produce mycotoxin fumonisins. China is one of the largest maize producers in the world. This study investigated the contamination of maize samples from three areas in eastern China by Fusarium and fumonisin‐producing fungi as well as their fumonisin‐producing potential. RESULTS: A total of 22 Fusarium strains were isolated, 19 of which were able to produce fumonisin. Among the 19 strains, 16 belonged to F. verticillioides, two to F. subglutinans and one to F. proliferatum. The majority (17/19) of the fumonisin‐forming strains were high FB₁ producers, which is a potential health risk for the population in these areas. Fusarium contamination in samples from the mideastern area was the most serious (11 Fusarium strains, with nine producing fumonisin, isolated from 24 samples), followed by the northeastern area (nine Fusarium strains, with all nine producing fumonisin, isolated from 21 samples) and the southeastern area (two Fusarium strains, with one producing fumonisin, isolated from 19 samples). CONCLUSION: Although the overall levels of FBs and contamination by fumonisin‐producing fungi in corn samples were not serious, the contaminating Fusarium strains possessed fairly strong toxicogenic ability and potential risk for food safety. © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Analysis of fumonisin contamination and the presence of Fusarium in wheat with kernel black point disease in the United States

The ability of the fungus Fusarium proliferatum to cause kernel black point disease in wheat was previously established, but natural contamination of black point wheat with both F. proliferatum and fumonisin mycotoxins has not been studied in the United States. Low levels of fumonisins were detected in nine of 43 wheat samples with kernel black point disease that were obtained from across the United States. A subset of samples was contaminated with F. proliferatum as well as with F. fujikuroi, F. nygamai, F. thapsinum and F. verticillioides, species closely related to F. proliferatum and morphologically similar to it in that they produce chains of asexual spores, or conidia. Nevertheless, of conidial chain-forming fusaria isolated from symptomatic wheat, F. proliferatum dominated. In greenhouse tests, isolates of F. proliferatum and the other species recovered from wheat samples were able to cause symptoms of kernel black point and, in some cases, low levels of fumonisin contamination of wheat. These data add to the understanding of the risk of fumonisin contamination of wheat and the potential for Fusarium species to cause kernel black point disease and fumonisin contamination of wheat. Further, the results of this study indicate that while US-grown wheat can sporadically be contaminated by fumonisins, the natural contamination levels seem to be low. The observations made provide evidence that fumonisins are not likely to be a factor contributing to the ability of Fusarium to cause kernel black point disease.     

Fusariotoxins in asparagus – their biosynthesis and migration

Asparagus is often infected by fungi of the Fusarium genus, a causal agent of crown and root rot, which decreases the quantity and quality of spears. Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium proliferatum are the most severe asparagus pathogens, well known as mycotoxin producers, mainly fumonisins and moniliformin. The present study was undertaken to estimate fumonisin B₁, moniliformin and ergosterol concentrations in asparagus tissue. Moreover, the possibility of toxin transport to the edible asparagus part during the inoculation by F. oxysporum and F. proliferatum of different plant parts (root, crown and stem base) and the potential risk for consumers were assessed. Our studies showed that the highest capability of producing fumonisin B₁ and moniliformin was demonstrated from isolates of F. proliferatum. The highest level of fumonisin B₁ in edible spears was detected when the asparagus crown was inoculated with F. oxysporum and F. proliferatum. The lowest concentration was found in the case of storage root inoculation, which corresponds with mycelium absence and the long distance from the roots to the stem. Similar results were demonstrated for moniliformin. The mycotoxin content was confirmed even in healthy spears (without disease symptoms and mycelium presence), which might indicate that the transport of mycotoxins is possible from the soil through the root system to the top part of the plants.     

Genetic variability and Fumonisin production by Fusarium proliferatum

Fusarium proliferatum is together with Fusarium verticillioides the main source of fumonisins, a health risk mycotoxin, contaminating agro-products. Contrary to F. verticillioides, it colonizes a wide range of host plants besides maize, such as wheat or barley among others, in particular in certain regions (Southern Europe). The phylogenetic study performed in this work using a wide sample of isolates from diverse hosts and origins revealed a high variability, while no host preferences could be sustained. A real time RT-PCR assay was also developed specific for F. proliferatum on the basis on fumonisin biosynthetic gene, FUM1, which allowed discrimination from F. verticillioides. FUM1 gene expression showed a high and significant correlation (0.77) with fumonisin production, representing a valuable tool for specific and sensitive diagnosis of metabolically active fumonisin-producing F. proliferatum isolates and for evaluating the influence on environmental conditions on FUM1 gene regulation. The ability to produce fumonisins was also widely distributed indicating that F. proliferatum can represent a risk for health similarly to F. verticillioides. Moreover, the wide range of plants susceptible to colonization by F. proliferatum suggests that the impact of fumonisin risk in a number of commodities might need a revision.     

Investigations on Fusarium spp. and their mycotoxins causing Fusarium ear rot of maize in Kosovo

After wheat, maize (Zea mays L.) is the second most important cereal crop in Kosovo and a major component of animal feed. The purpose of this study was to analyse the incidence and identity of the Fusarium species isolated from naturally infected maize kernels in Kosovo in 2009 and 2010, as well as the mycotoxin contamination. The disease incidence of Fusarium ear rot (from 0.7% to 40% diseased ears) on maize in Kosovo is high. The most frequently Fusarium spp. identified on maize kernels were Fusarium subglutinans, F. verticillioides/F. proliferatum and F. graminearum. Maize kernel samples were analysed by LC-MS/MS and found to be contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON), DON-3-glucoside, 3-acetyl-DON, 15-acetyl-DON, zearalenone, zearalenone-14-sulphate, moniliformin, fumonisin B₁ and fumonisin B₂. This is the first report on the incidence and identification of Fusarium species isolated from naturally infected maize as well as the mycotoxin contamination in Kosovo.     

Exposure,Occurrence, and Chemistry of Fumonisins and their Cryptic Derivatives

Fumonisins are mycotoxins mainly produced by Fusarium proliferatum and Fusarium verticillioides. Because of their wide distribution, the potential health hazard, and economic significance, they are considered one of the most important mycotoxin classes. Epidemiological evidence suggests a relationship between the Fusarium load in corn, exposure to fumonisins, and esophageal cancer. However, mechanisms of actions of fumonisins are not yet fully resolved and epidemiological studies suffer from various confounding factors. Correspondingly, the most relevant congener of the fumonisin family (fumonisin B₁) has been classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans and maximum limits have been set for corn and corn‐based products. However, many non‐corn‐based products are also susceptible to fumonisin contamination. Indeed, some of them contain very high amounts of fumonisins, but enter the market legally. Furthermore, fumonisin exposure of consumers is probably consistently being underestimated because only a fraction of fumonisins can be detected by routine analysis. The bioavailability and toxicity of most nondetectable (cryptic) forms has not been resolved. In this work, we review the developments of cancer research into fumonisins since their discovery in 1988 until today and provide an overview of the contributions of various foodstuffs to fumonisin exposure, including those products that have been largely neglected in the past. In conclusion, (1) corn remains the principal source of fumonisin ingestion, but fumonisins in non‐corn‐based commodities require continuous monitoring; (2) cryptic fumonisins should be included in risk assessment studies; and (3) certain population groups (for example children) may suffer from enhanced exposure and could face increased health risks.     

On fumonisin incidence in monoculture maize under no‐till,conventional tillage and two nitrogen fertilisation levels

BACKGROUND: Fusarium ear rot and fumonisin contamination are serious problems for maize growers. The lack of maize genotypes highly resistant to fumonisin contamination emphasises the need for management strategies to prevent contamination by this mycotoxin. There are conflicting reports regarding no‐till and nitrogen (N) fertilisation practices in relation to the incidence of fumonisins. In this study the effect of no‐till compared with conventional tillage and of N fertilisation rates on fumonisin occurrence was investigated over three years in Northern Italy. RESULTS: The average contamination of grain by fumonisins B₁ and B₂ over the three years was significantly different, with a lower value in 2000 (516 µg kg^?1) than in the other years (5846 and 3269 µg kg^?1 in 2001 and 2002 respectively). Conventional tillage and no‐till treatments had no significant effect on the incidence of fumonisins. This finding suggests that above‐ground residues infected by Fusarium would not lead to an increase in fumonisin incidence. However, N fertilisation significantly increased fumonisin levels, by 99 and 70% in 2000 and 2001 respectively. CONCLUSION: Maize monoculture does not show a cumulative effect on the occurrence of fumonisins, while high rates of N fertiliser consistently result in elevated fumonisin levels. Both these effects can be influenced by annual meteorological fluctuations. Copyright © 2008 Society of Chemical Industry     

Molecular characterization and fumonisin production by Fusarium verticillioides isolated from corn grains of different geographic origins in Brazil

Gibberella moniliformis is most commonly associated with maize worldwide and produces high levels of fumonisins, some of the most agriculturally important mycotoxins. Studies demonstrate that molecular methods can be helpful for a rapid identification of Fusarium species and their levels of toxin production. The purpose of this research was to apply molecular methods (AFLP, TEF-1α partial gene sequencing and PCR based on MAT alleles) for the identification of Fusarium species isolated from Brazilian corn and to verify if real time RT-PCR technique based on FUM1 and FUM19 genes is appropriated to estimate fumonisins B₁ and B₂ production levels. Among the isolated strains, 96 were identified as Fusarium verticillioides, and four as other Fusarium species. Concordant phylogenies were obtained by AFLP and TEF-1α sequencing, permitting the classification of the different species into distinct clades. Concerning MAT alleles, 70% of the F. verticillioides isolates carried the MAT-1 and 30% MAT-2. A significant correlation was observed between the expression of the genes and toxin production r = 0.95 and r = 0.79 (correlation of FUM1 with FB₁ and FB₂, respectively, P < 0.0001); r = 0.93 and r = 0.78 (correlation of FUM19 with FB₁ and FB₂, respectively, P < 0.0001). Molecular methods used in this study were found to be useful for the rapid identification of Fusarium species. The high and significant correlation between FUM1 and FUM19 expression and fumonisins production suggests that real time RT-PCR is suitable for studies considering the influence of abiotic and biotic factors on expression of these genes. This is the first report concerning the expression of fumonisin biosynthetic genes in Fusarium strains isolated from Brazilian agricultural commodity.     

Factors associated with fumonisin contamination of maize in Uganda

BACKGROUND: During production and handling, maize is attacked by many Fusarium species, some of which are prolific producers of fumonisins. Contamination of maize with fumonisins is influenced by climate, agronomic and postharvest practices. This study investigated the factors associated with the occurrence of fumonisins in maize produced in three agroecological zones of Uganda. RESULTS: All the maize samples were positive for fumonisins with levels ranging from 0.27 to 10 mg kg^?1. A positive and significant correlation (P < 0.01) was observed between fumonisin levels and agroecological zone. Maize from high altitude zone had significantly higher (P < 0.05) mean total fumonisin content (4.93 mg kg^?1) than maize from the mid altitude‐moist (4.53 mg kg^?1) and mid altitude‐dry (4.50 mg kg^?1) zones. Five farmer practices, namely intercropping, crop rotation, delayed harvesting, drying maize on bare ground and planting treated seeds were significantly associated with fumonisin production in maize. Intercropping, delayed harvesting and drying maize on bare ground increased fumonisin contamination whereas crop rotation and planting treated seeds reduced the contamination. CONCLUSION: All maize samples obtained from the three agroecological zones were contaminated with fumonisins. The study showed that some of the farmers' practices predispose maize to fumonisin contamination. The findings are important for future studies aimed at designing strategies to control and prevent contamination of maize with fumonisins. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Relative severity of fumonisin contamination of cereal crops in West Africa

Traditional and improved varieties of maize, pearl millet and sorghum were planted by small-scale farmers under the direction of the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture in two Nigerian agro-ecological zones: the Sudan Savanna and the Northern Guinea Savanna. Samples were collected for the determination of Fusarium infection and fumonisin (B₁, B₂ and B₃) contamination. A previous paper reported Aspergillus infection and aflatoxin contamination of these samples. Fusarium infection levels, measured by per cent kernels infected, were modest with mean levels for the above cereals of 16% ± 11% (SD), 12% ± 7% and 13% ± 16%, respectively. However, the Fusarium species recovered from maize were predominantly the fumonisin producers F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum, together making an infection rate of 15% ± 10%, whereas these species were present to a limited extent only in the other two cereals, 1% ± 1% for pearl millet and 2% ± 6% for sorghum. Fumonisin contamination was variable but reflected the diversity of Fusarium producers in these three cereals. Mean levels were 228 ± 579 µg kg^–1 (range < 5–2860 µg kg^–1) for maize, 18 ± 7 µg kg^–1 (range = 6–29 µg kg^–1) for pearl millet and 131 ± 270 µg kg^–1 (range < 5–1340 µg kg^–1) for sorghum. Together with previous results on aflatoxin, this study confirmed the co-occurrence of aflatoxins and fumonisins in maize as well as in the traditional African cereals, millet and sorghum (89% co-occurrence across all three cereals). The low fumonisin levels may be ascribed to the use of good agricultural practices. Of the Fusarium species present, those in maize consisted mainly of fumonisin producers, the opposite of what was observed in pearl millet and sorghum. It is concluded that replacement of maize by pearl millet and sorghum could improve food safety with regards to aflatoxin B and fumonisin B exposure.     

Characterization of Fusarium verticillioides strains by PCR‐RFLP analysis of the intergenic spacer region of the rDNA

Thirty‐three Fusarium verticillioides strains from diverse origins and hosts have been analysed for fumonisin production and characterized in order (i) to detect the variability present in this species and (ii) to discriminate among isolates. The method used was a combination of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) generated by restriction endonucleases applied to the IGS region (intergenic spacer of rDNA). All the F. verticillioides strains associated with crops produced fumonisins B₁ and B₂ except those isolated from banana. Analysis of the IGS region by PCR‐RFLP proved to be useful to detect variability within F. verticillioides and allowed discrimination of two related groups of isolates belonging to distinct lineages differing in fumonisin production and host preferences: the fumonisin‐producing group associated with cereals and the fumonisin non‐producing group associated with banana. The method used facilitates early detection and characterization of F. verticillioides strains required to control both types of pathogens and to evaluate plant exposure to the toxin, quality of the raw material to be processed and the potential fumonisin contamination in order to prevent fumonisins entering the food chain. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Multiplex PCR-based strategy to detect contamination with mycotoxigenic Fusarium species in rice and fingermillet collected from southern India

BACKGROUND: The genus Fusarium comprises a diverse group of fungi including several species that produce mycotoxins in food commodities. In the present study, a multiplex PCR was standardised for the group‐specific detection of fumonisin‐producing and trichothecene‐producing strains of Fusarium species. Primers for genus‐level recognition of Fusarium spp. were designed from the internal transcribed spacer regions 1 and 2 of rDNA. Primers for group‐specific detection were designed from the tri5 and tri6 genes involved in trichothecene biosynthesis and the fum1 and fum13 genes involved in fumonisin biosynthesis. RESULTS: Among the various genera and their strains tested, all the 85 confirmed Fusarium strains were positive for rDNA gene and the rest stayed negative. From among the Fusarium strains, 15 had amplification for trichothecene‐ and 20 for fumonisin‐encoding genes. All PCR positive trichothecene chemotypes of Fusarium species tested were positive for chemical analysis but in the case of fumonisins, of the 20 PCR positive cultures, only 13 showed positive for chemical analysis by HPTLC. CONCLUSION: The assay described here provided a rapid and reliable detection of trichothecene‐ and fumonisin‐producing Fusarium directly from natural food grains and the results were always comparable with a conventional HPTLC detection method. It can, therefore, be used by the food industry to monitor quality and safety. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Identification,mycotoxin risk and pathogenicity of Fusarium species associated with fig endosepsis in Apulia,Italy

In a survey carried out on 87 rotted fig fruits samples collected in the Apulia region of Italy, the authors isolated 126 Fusarium strains identified as F. ramigenum (69 strains), F. solani (49), F. proliferatum (five) and three not identified. Investigation on the fertility of the strains belonging to F. proliferatum and F. ramigenum revealed that only strains of F. proliferatum were fertile. The identity of F. ramigenum strains was confirmed by sequencing a portion of the translation elongation factor-1α gene. When Fusarium species were analysed for their toxigenicity, 37/69 strains of F. ramigenum produced fusaric acid (FA) up to 525 mg kg^?1; 30 strains produced beauvericin (BEA) up to 190 mg kg^?1; 60 strains produced fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) up to 1575 mg kg^?1 of total FBs; and two strains produced fusaproliferin (FUP) up to 345 mg kg^?1; all five strains of F. proliferatum produced FA at low levels; two strains produced BEA up to 205 mg kg^?1; one strain produced FB₁ and FB₂, 1100 and 470 mg kg^?1, respectively; and one strain produced FUP, 820 mg kg^?1; F. solani (30 strains) produced FA, 13 strains up to 215 mg kg^?1. Few fungal extracts showed high toxicity toward brine shrimp larvae and in some cases in relation to BEA and FA content. A pathogenic assay on fig fruits showed that all three species were pathogenic, with higher virulence of F. ramigenum. These data report for the first time the production of BEA and FB₁/FB₂ by F. ramigenum and show that it is a main agent of fig endosepsis in Apulia and can contribute to fumonisin contamination of fresh and dried figs.     

Fumonisin contamination of maize hybrids visibly damaged by Sesamia

Sesamia nonagrioides Lefebvre (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is the main insect pest of maize cultivated in Mediterranean areas, causing an increase in broken plants, a reduction in yield and a decline in grain quality. An investigation of Sesamia attacks and fumonisin accumulation on 25 maize hybrids sown as a second crop after wheat has been performed under field conditions in Central Italy in 2000. The hybrids tested in this study showed different degrees of insect damage, ranging from 12 to 57% of damaged ears per hybrid. Over 50% of the tested hybrids showed strong insect damage, with more than 30% of harvested ears visibly damaged by Sesamia. Fungal contamination by Fusarium verticillioides and F proliferatum, two well‐known producers of fumonisins, was detected in both symptomless and insect‐damaged samples. Fumonisin analysis of healthy‐looking and insect‐damaged ear samples of each hybrid showed 100% incidence of positive samples, with fumonisin contents ranging from 0.01 to 20 mg kg^?1 for healthy‐looking ears and from 27 ± 32 to 287 ± 221 mg kg^?1 for insect‐damaged ears. Extremely high levels of fumonisins were found in ear samples visibly damaged by Sesamia, with individual values of up to 694 mg kg^?1 and average values exceeding 100 mg kg^?1 in more than 50% of the hybrids. A good correlation (r = 0.749) was found between fumonisin contamination and the degree of insect damage by Sesamia of the tested hybrids, calculated on the basis of percentage of ears visibly damaged by insects and with more than 5% kernel loss. This finding leads to the conclusion that insect damage by Sesamia on maize could be used as an early indicator of fumonisin contamination. © 2002 Society of Chemical Industry     

Fumonisin contamination and fumonisin producing black Aspergilli in dried vine fruits of different origin

Aspergillus niger isolates are able to produce fumonisins in high quantities on agar media with a low water activity. Several agricultural products fit this criterion, including dried vine fruits, dates and figs. Data on the occurrence and role of this species in fumonisin contamination of agricultural products with high sugar content are needed to clarify the importance of A. niger in human health. The mycobiota and fumonisin contamination of various dried vine fruit samples collected from different countries were examined to clarify the role of black Aspergilli in fumonisin contamination of such products. All except two of the examined samples were contaminated with black Aspergilli. Species assignment of the isolates was carried out using sequence analysis of part of the calmodulin gene. The range of fumonisin isomers present in the raisin samples, and produced by A. niger isolates collected from dried vine fruits was also examined using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization-ion trap mass spectrometry (RP-HPLC/ESI-ITMS). Among the 30 A. niger/A. awamori isolates identified, 20 were found to be able to produce fumonisins (average contamination: 5.16 mg/kg; range: 0.017-19.6 mg/kg). The average fumonisin content of the 7 dried vine fruit samples which were found to be contaminated by potential fumonisin producing black Aspergilli was 7.22 mg/kg (range: 4.55-35.49 mg/kg). The isolates produced several fumonisin isomers also present in the dried vine fruit samples, including fumonisins B_1-4, 3-epi-FB₃, 3-epi-FB₄, iso-FB₁, and two iso-FB_2,3 forms. Fumonisin B₁ was detected for the first time in A. niger cultures. Most of these isomers have previously only been identified in Fusarium species. Our data indicate that A. niger and A. awamori are responsible for fumonisin contamination of dried vine fruits worldwide. The observed levels of contamination are alarming and pose a new threat for food safety.     

Recent research on fumonisins: a review

Fumonisins are well known mycotoxins produced by Fusarium verticillioides, F. proliferatum and other Fusarium species. Many new fumonisins and fumonisin-like compounds have been detected by mass spectrometry in cultures of F. verticillioides. Recently, fumonisins B₂ and B₄ were produced by Aspergillus niger isolated from coffee and fumonisin B₂ in A. niger from grapes. Fumonisin B₂ was itself detected in coffee beans, wine and beer, adding to the list of foodstuffs and feedstuffs other than corn (maize) and sorghum in which fumonisins have been found in recent years. Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) can bind to proteins (PB FB₁) and to other matrix components during food processing involving heat. The occurrence of bound fumonisins in processed corn foods is common. Another type of binding (or association) relates to observed instability of fumonisins in rice flour, corn starch and corn meal at room temperature; this can affect the immunoaffinity column clean-up procedure in analysis of naturally contaminated starch-containing corn foods for fumonisins. The occurrence of N-fatty acylated fumonisin derivatives in retail fried corn foods has also been demonstrated. Bioaccessibility of free FB₁ and total bound FB₁ (TB FB₁) present in corn flakes has been estimated by in vitro digestion experiments. Intentional binding of fumonisins to cholestyramine has been demonstrated in vivo and is a potential means of detoxification of animal feed.     

Fumonisin B2 production by Aspergillus niger in Thai coffee beans

During 2006 and 2007, a total of 64 Thai dried coffee bean samples (Coffea arabica) from two growing sites in Chiangmai Province and 32 Thai dried coffee bean samples (Coffea canephora) from two growing sites in Chumporn Province, Thailand, were collected and assessed for fumonisin contamination by black Aspergilli. No Fusarium species known to produce fumonisin were detected, but black Aspergilli had high incidences on both Arabica and Robusta Thai coffee beans. Liquid chromatography (LC) with high-resolution mass spectrometric (HRMS) detection showed that 67% of Aspergillus niger isolates from coffee beans were capable of producing fumonisins B₂ (FB₂) and B₄ when grown on Czapek Yeast Agar with 5% NaCl. Small amounts (1–9.7 ng g^?1) of FB₂ were detected in seven of 12 selected coffee samples after ion-exchange purification and LC–MS/MS detection. Two samples also contained FB₄. This is the first record of freshly isolated A. niger strains producing fumonisins and the first report on the natural occurrence of FB₂ and FB₄ in coffee.     

Molecular strategies for detection and quantification of mycotoxin‐producing Fusarium species: a review

Fusarium contamination is considered a major agricultural problem, which could not only significantly reduce yield and quality of agricultural products, but produce mycotoxins that are virulence factors responsible for many diseases of humans and farm animals. One strategy to identify toxigenic Fusarium species is the use of modern molecular methods, which include the analysis of DNA target regions for differentiation of the Fusarium species, particularly the mycotoxin‐producing Fusarium species such as F. verticillioides and F. graminearum. Additionally, polymerase chain reaction assays are used to determine the genes involved in the biosynthesis of the toxins in order to facilitate a qualitative and quantitative detection of Fusarium‐producing mycotoxins. Also, it is worth mentioning that some factors that modulate the biosynthesis of mycotoxins are not only determined by their biosynthetic gene clusters, but also by environmental conditions. Therefore, all of the aforementioned factors which may affect the molecular diagnosis of mycotoxins will be reviewed and discussed in this paper. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry     

Foods and fumonisins

Fumonisins are synthesized by different species of the genus Fusarium but the most significant producers are Fusarium moniliforme and Fusarium proliferatum. The fumonisins belong to the most important toxic fungal metabolites. Maize and maize products are mainly contaminated. This article gives an overview about the world-wide contamination of food with fumonisins.