Detection of tool deflection in milling by a sensory axis slide for machine tools

Previous publications regarding the project Gentelligent Components for Machine Tools of the Collaborative Research Center 653 presented the design of a new sensory z-slide for a 5-axis machining center. Equipped with several strain sensors, the new slide is able to feel the machining process by measuring the process forces and vibrations. Here, a challenge is the detection of mechanical strains in the slide without degrading its high global stiffness. The application of micro strain gages in small notches on the slide represents a promising approach for the improvement of the sensitivity as well as the integration of sensors into the slide. This paper presents the utilization of the sensing axis-slide in a manufacturing environment. For this purpose, a first prototype of the slide is build and integrated into a milling center DMG HSC 55 linear. In this test machine, the dynamic characteristics of the integrated slide are identified with frequency response function measurements. Based on force measurements with a dynamometer, force calibration matrices are computed to calculate the forces in the machine coordinate system at the tool center point from the measured strain signals during milling processes. The force sensing with the slide allows furthermore the identification of tool characteristics such as the static tool stiffness. This parameter is estimated from the ratio of the measured contact forces and the set collision distance when moving the tool smoothly into the work piece. The known tool stiffness enables the detection of the static tool deflection from the force signals during a milling process. To compare the detected tool deflection with the real tool deflection, reference measurements on the work piece are performed using a perthometer. For further monitoring applications of the tool deflection in more complex 2.5D milling an approach to transform the measured forces from the stationary machine coordinate system into the moving tool coordinate system is presented.     

Backside probing of flip–chip circuits using electrostatic force sampling

A non-contact scanning probe microscopy technique for measuring high-frequency voltage waveforms from the backside of a flip-chip mounted integrated circuit is presented. The signals on interconnects on the frontside of the die are accessed by mechanical thinning and focused ion beam milling through the backside of the die. A scanning force microscopy micromachined probe is placed inside the focused ion beam hole so that it is in close proximity to the circuit measurement point. Internal circuit voltage waveforms are measured by using the scanning probe in a non-contact mode and sensing the local electrostatic force on the tip of the probe. The instrument currently has a 3 GHz bandwidth and a capacitive loading on the test point of less than 1 fF. The output waveforms from ring oscillator flip-chip test circuits are measured.     

基于归一化标定的压电测力仪测试精度研究

分析归一化标定时,加载力偏差对压电测力仪矢量力测试精度的影响。通过对理论推导可得,归一化标定加载偏差使电荷放大器归一化灵敏度改变,并增大了横向干扰输出,导致测力仪对矢量力测量产生偏差,降低了测试精度。通过实验对小力值矢量力进行测试,调整加载杆连接方式减小加载力偏差,测力仪横向干扰降低38.8%以上,矢量力参数不确定度最多减小53.9%。     

压电测力仪尺寸参数对测试精度影响研究

针对大量程比、小力值压电测力仪,分析了测力仪结构尺寸对测试精度的影响。采用理论与有限元分析相结合的方式分析可得,测力仪自身刚度不足引起的变形将增大测力仪向间干扰,降低测试精度。测力仪上盖厚度、中心孔径及传感器跨距尺寸参数是导致测力仪刚度不足,影响测力仪测试精度的关键因素。通过对某小力值测力仪进行尺寸参数优化设计,各项固有频率均在4 kHz以上,动态性能优良;标称力值作用下,最大向间干扰为3.33%,测试精度提高33.4%     

Fuzzy logic for constant force control of end milling

The machining condition usually has significant variation resulting from the change of cutting depth and the intrinsic property of the workpiece. In order to maintain the performance of a classical proportional integral derivative control system, the tool life and machining quality, conservative feedrate, and cutting depth change are prespecified as the limitations of computer numerically controlled operators. Therefore, constant cutting force control is proposed as a useful approach for increasing the metal removal rate and the tool life. However, the model-based controller cannot handle the nonlinearity of a force control system due to cutting condition variations. Here, a fuzzy controller with learning ability was employed to improve both the system performance and the adaptability. This control approach vias implemented on a retrofit old-fashioned milling machine for the end milling process. The experimental results show that this control strategy has smooth feedrate and good cutting force dynamic responses     

Fuzzy force control and state detection in vertebral lamina milling

Laminectomy is a typical high-risk surgical operation on the spine, during which milling is the key procedure to remove part of vertebral lamina and release the pressure on the spinal nerve. Because many important vessels and nerves surround the vertebral lamina, any incorrect maneuver can cause irreparable damage to patients. In this paper, a fuzzy force control is designed specifically for vertebral lamina milling. The force control is implemented to adjust the milling parameters to copy the complex anatomical structure of the vertebral lamina, and fuzzy combiner is integrated into the force controller to tune its control parameters on-line. For safety purposes, the state detection method based on energy consumption is proposed in the process of vertebral lamina milling. Three different milling states can be detected and the safety control point, which is the stop point of the milling, is found, effectively improving the quality of the vertebral lamina milling. The results of contrast experiments showed that the milling process under fuzzy force control has shorter time and more stable longitudinal contact force. The state detection method based on energy consumption can detect the three milling states, resulting in an acceptable thickness of the remaining vertebral lamina.     

基于压电测力仪的模拟加载标定方法研究

在航空航天、高端装备制造领域,常伴随着大力值比载荷的产生,为监测其工作状态,需要对大力值比载荷大小、方向进行准确测量。该文以压电式力测试系统为研究对象,提出一种用于测力仪标定的旋转模拟加载方法。首先,基于力分解原理,结合标定装置的实际轴线与理论轴线的偏差原理,得到模拟加载过程中侧向合力随加载方位角变化的几何分布规律。针对侧向力理论波动的特点,提出一种新的模拟加载方法 旋转模拟加载法。最后设计了矢量力模拟加载实验,对测试系统应用非旋转模拟加载方法和旋转加载法进行试验对比。结果表明,应用旋转加载标定法时,测力仪侧向合力输出误差最大降低了18.7%F.S.,验证了旋转模拟加载方法的可行性和合理性。     

三向压电式动态车削测力仪的性能研究

基于压电式动态车削测力仪在测试过程中信号的动态监测与结果分析,采用有限元法对测力仪结构进行了热结构分析,得出其在切削热作用下温度场分布,同时采用模拟实验的方法对有限元分析结果进行了验证。从而得出测力仪在动态测试时,切削热对其性能的影响规律。两种方法均证明了切削热对压电车削测力仪的影响,为改进测力仪的结构提供了理论基础,对改善测力仪的性能起到了很好作用,可广泛用于传感器弹性元件优化设计工程。     

垂直腔面发射激光器制作新工艺

采用一种新工艺制作了垂直腔面发射激光器(VCSEL),即用开环分布孔取代以往的环形沟道作为氧化物限制技术的注入窗口。因开环分布孔间形成多个桥,为电注入提供了天然的桥状通道,解决了电极过沟断线问题。这种新结构器件的输出功率约为以往结构器件的1.34倍。在20℃~80℃范围内,对器件的输出功率、阈值电流及波长漂移性进行了研究。60℃时最大输出光功率可达到6 mW。激射波长随温度升高呈线性变化,且向长波方向移动,速率为0.06 nm/℃。由实验结果计算出器件的热阻为1.96℃/mW。     

Analysis and experimental evaluation of a new planar piezoelectricaccelerometer

The behavior of a new planar piezoelectric accelerometer is investigated, both theoretically and experimentally. The proposed accelerometer is composed of a piezoceramic ring filled, in its inner space, with a seismic mass. The theoretical analysis has been carried out by using a matrix model of the radial symmetric modes of the thin piezoceramic ring, proposed by the authors (1996). The numerical results obtained for the empty ring show that, with the response being constant, the bandwidth increases when the annulus radius increases. On the contrary, by inserting a high-density and stiffness seismic mass, both the response and the bandwidth increase by increasing the percent quantity of the seismic mass. The measurements of admittance and sensitivity, carried out on a test specimen, validate the computed results and demonstrate that the accelerometer is planar. Finally, an accelerometer composed of two of such elements, stacked and connected in parallel, has been realized     

钻铣一体功能与精度测试

描述了一种结构功能,可以使机床满足在钻孔、铣边加工制程中随意切换,从而使其实现一次装夹满足二次钻孔和铣边成型的工序要求。同时通过试验验证,二次钻孔的品质可以得到良好的保障。     

基于置信度的S模式信号随机多位纠错技术

针对现有纠错技术只能对少量随机错误或突发错误进行纠错的不足,提出了一种基于置信度的随机多位纠错方法。该方法在准确进行置信度判断的基础上,通过缩短循环冗余校验（CRC）处理时间或增加并行运算能力以增加纠错位数。同时给出了可运用于工程实际的保守技术和强力技术的联合纠错处理流程。通过解码纠错实验,统计结果表明该置信度判定法则的准确性为98.24%,通过图形处理器（GPU）强力纠错可实现高达83.37%的解码率,通过现场可编程门阵列（FPGA）强力纠错可实现73.66%的解码率,较现有强力纠错技术的纠错能力有较大提高,可增强对航空器监视的连续性。     

50 μm级D形硬质合金微铣刀铣削纯铜试验研究

针对折叠波导慢波结构的微型化和高精度要求,采用自研的μEM-200CDS2组合高精度加工机床,通过线电极电火花磨削技术,制备出直径为50 μm级的D形微铣刀。在纯铜工件上开展工艺试验,研究微槽的表面质量。使用白光干涉仪、超景深显微镜、扫描电镜等仪器来观察微槽的变化情况,获得了微槽表面形貌、粗糙度等随铣削距离的变化规律,并对微铣削过程中的表面质量变化及毛刺形成的现象进行了分析。结果表明,槽底刀具的旋转轨迹纹路先是集中在刀具切出方向,随着刀具磨损,转为刀具进给方向;微槽顺铣侧毛刺多于逆铣侧,并随着铣削距离的增加而增多;微槽槽底粗糙度以线性增长趋势不断上升。     

Control of linear motor machine tool feed drives for end milling: Robust MIMO approach

Linear motors are getting promising for use as high speed, high accuracy machine tool feed drives. The cutting force in the machining process are directly reflected to the linear motor due to no gearing mechanism. To achieve high accuracy machining, the controller for the linear motor system should be designed to compensate for the cutting force.

In this work, a MIMO H_∞ controller for the linear motor machine tool feed drives has been designed to reduce tracking errors induced by cutting forces for end milling. The controller is designed using normalized coprime factorization method for the dynamic model of the linear motor system. The model includes constant in-line and cross coupling force gain, since the feedback cutting force can be considered as the product of the constant gain and the moving velocity of each axis.

Analysis of the structured singular value shows that the designed controller has good robust performance despite wide variations of the cutting force and physical parameters. It is directly implemented on a linear motor X–Y table which is mounted on a milling machine to have cutting experiments via a DSP board. Experimental results verified effectiveness of the proposed scheme to suppress the effects of the cutting force in the high feed rate.     

热场作用下预紧结构与压电传感器输出的研究

压电石英三向力传感器受热影响会导致输出信号产生偏差。基于温度均匀分布假设分析了压电传感器预紧结构在温度影响下的热变形规律,得出施加在压电石英上的热应力是传感器输出信号偏差的主要原因的结论。利用有限元软件对预紧结构加热过程中压电石英所受载荷变化过程进行分析,结果表明,随着热量的流入,压电石英在预紧力施加的方向上的应力变化为-3 315kPa。最后,基于信号偏差的分析结论改进传感器的预紧结构,并设计对比实验进行验证。在240s的加热过程中,改进后测力仪的预紧方向输出信号变化不大于4mV,能够抑制由温度变化引起的输出信号偏差,提高测试准确性。     

基于生死单元的激光铣削温度场数值模拟与验证

利用ANSYS 有限元模拟软件建立了激光铣削过程的三维瞬态有限元模型,并以Al2O3 陶瓷材料的激光铣削加工为例,利用ANSYS 中的单元生死技术对激光铣削过程中温度场的动态分布进行了模拟。选取其中的一组参数,详细分析了铣削件表面某一点温度场的变化规律,确定了沿样件不同的扫描路线上铣削层的宽度和深度,并提出了温度场模拟结果的间接验证方法,即将温度场模拟获得的铣削层宽度和深度与实验测得的数据进行对比,对比结果较吻合,说明建立的有限元模型能够进行激光铣削效果的预测。     

场限制环的安全环距设计原理

场限制环作为一种可与许多器件工艺相容的ＰＮ结终端得到了广泛应用。存在的一个问题是其效果随结构参数有过分敏感的变化。文中认为：作为设计指导思想的最佳环距原则是加重这一敏感性的重要原因。作为改进，提出了新的安全环距设计原则。按安全环距原则设计，除可明显缓解终端效果随结构参数敏感变化的问题外，还可有效地提高在同样结构和工艺条件下所制成器件的额定电压。     

热场作用下预紧结构与压电传感器输出的研究

压电石英三向力传感器受热影响会导致输出信号产生偏差。基于温度均匀分布假设分析了压电传感器预紧结构在温度影响下的热变形规律,得出施加在压电石英上的热应力是传感器输出信号偏差的主要原因的结论。利用有限元软件对预紧结构加热过程中压电石英所受载荷变化过程进行分析,结果表明,随着热量的流入,压电石英在预紧力施加的方向上的应力变化为-3 315 kPa。最后,基于信号偏差的分析结论改进传感器的预紧结构,并设计对比实验进行验证。在240 s的加热过程中,改进后测力仪的预紧方向输出信号变化不大于4 mV,能够抑制由温度变化引起的输出信号偏差,提高测试准确性。     

新型压电三向钻削测力仪的设计与实验研究

为了克服以往压电三向钻削测力仪采用石英晶片较多,因此装配工艺很高,调试麻烦,制造成本很高的缺点,设计出只采用4片压电石英晶片就可以同时测量出钻削过程中产生的扭矩、径向力、轴向力的压电三向钻削测力仪。介绍了该测力仪的工作原理及设计方法,并对其进行静动态标定实验。实验结果表明每项指标均达到国际生产工程研究会-切削科学技术委员会规定的标准。它具有灵敏度和固有频率高,线性和重复性好的优点。且其结构简单,易装配和调试,成本较低,具有广阔的应用前景。     

离子束减薄对金属玻璃电镜样品的非均匀刻蚀

本文利用透射电子显微镜和原子力显微镜研究了金属玻璃样品在离子束作用后形成的厚度起伏特征。采用高分辨透射电镜和能谱分析结果表明金属玻璃样品中没有发生明显的结构和成分的变化。利用离子束与样品表面作用过程的粗化机理解释了出现这种特征厚度起伏的原因。这种厚度起伏是由材料本身性质和实验条件共同决定的。通过研究离子束与样品的作用方式,有利于确定合适的透射电镜样品制备方法,有助于利用透射电镜研究非晶样品的微观结构。