Analysis of activity preference in depressed and nondepressed college students.

It has been hypothesized that depressive behavior is maintained by the activities and interpersonal interactions of depressed individuals and their environment. The present study sought to determine whether depressed and nondepressed college students could be differentiated on the basis of their reported activities over a 6-day period. Ss were 20 female undergraduates with highest scores on the Depression Adjective Checklists, and 20 controls. Results of a multivariate stepwise discriminant analysis revealed that a perfect discrimination could be formed between depressed and control Ss. It is concluded that depression in a college population is correlated with small changes in many activities rather than with the large reductions in overt behavior reported for clinically depressed individuals. Results suggest the possibility of an operant component in maintaining depressive behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of failure on the self-esteem of depressed and nondepressed subjects.

Hypothesized that depressed Ss would show greater negative change in self-esteem in response to failure than nondepressed Ss, and investigated the relationship between lability and stability in mood and susceptibility of self-esteem to failure. 24 depressed and 24 nondepressed Ss completed daily mood ratings for 1 wk. and were categorized into stabile and labile groups. Each S was given a puzzle-solving task on which a 25, 50, or 75% failure condition was possible. Before and after the task, each S completed a self-esteem measure. Differences between depressed and nondepressed, stabile and labile groups did not reach statistical significance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Illusion of control for self and others in depressed and nondepressed college students.

108 depressed or nondepressed undergraduates, as assessed by the Beck Depression Inventory and Multiple Affect Adjective Check List, judged either how much control they themselves had or how much control a male or female confederate (C) had over a noncontingent, but positive, outcome. Replicating past findings (i.e., L. B. Alloy et al, 1981) on depression and judgments of control, depressed Ss judged relatively accurately that they exerted little control over the experimental outcome, whereas nondepressed Ss overestimated their personal control. Ss' judgments of the C's control were a function of the S's mood state and sex as well as of the C's sex. With 1 exception (depressed males in the male other condition), depressed Ss tended to overestimate the C's (male or female) control over the noncontingent outcome. Nondepressed females also judged that the C (male or female) exerted a high degree of control, thus succumbing to the illusion of control both for themselves and others. Nondepressed males tended to judge more accurately that the C (particularly the female C) exerted little control and thus succumbed to the illusion of control for themselves but not for others. Findings imply that an adequate understanding of depressive and nondepressive cognition requires an interpersonal as well as an intrapsychic perspective. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparing the self with others in depressed and nondepressed college students: Reply to McCauley.

Examines 2 confusions demonstrated in the comments of C. McCauley (see record 1985-28048-001) about the present authors' earlier study (see record 1984-12223-001) of social comparison processes and the false consensus. It is suggested that the contradiction in the findings of the present authors is only apparent and that the differences between depressed and nondepressed Ss on nondepression-relevant and depression-irrelevant items are nonsignificant. It is concluded that there are several interesting ways to analyze differences between ratings of self and ratings of others, each of which has a different meaning. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Classifying college students as depressed or nondepressed using the Beck Depression Inventory: An empirical analysis.

In Study 1, the classification of 150 college students as nondepressed or mildly or moderately depressed was compared using Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scores obtained on 2 occasions, either on the same day or 1 wk later. Whereas the overall test–retest reliability coefficients were acceptable, particularly when both administrations occurred on the same day, the consistency of classification of Ss into the mild and moderate levels of depression was poor. In an attempt to determine the factors contributing to the poor classification consistency, a 2nd study with 207 Ss compared the effect of exposure to the BDI on subsequent BDI responses. Ss who completed the BDI on 2 occasions showed significantly lower BDI scores compared to Ss exposed to an alternate depression inventory (the Self-Rating Depression Scale [SRDS]) or no prior questionnaire. In addition, a large percentage of Ss classified as moderately depressed following the initial BDI administration failed to be classified within the moderate categories on retesting the same day. Ss tested using the SRDS maintained the same depression classification when retested on the BDI. Item analyses failed to reveal significantly different amounts of change among individual BDI items. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of changing contingencies on the behavior of depressed and nondepressed individuals.

The effects of rules vs shaping on the behavior of depressed and nondepressed individuals were compared. Extending the findings in the depressive realism literature to a learning paradigm, the behavior of depressed individuals was more sensitive to changing contingencies than was the behavior of nondepressed individuals. Contrary to hypotheses, however, this effect appeared due primarily to the nondepressive Ss' strategy of continuing to follow an experimenter's inaccurate rules. Results suggest the relative absence of self-presentational concerns may lead depressed individuals to be more accurate in judging environmental contingencies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Processing of ambiguous and unambiguous feedback by depressed and nondepressed college students: Schematic biases and their implications for depressive realism.

Explored schematic processing as a mechanism for predicting (a) when depressed Ss would be negative relative to nondepressed Ss and (b) when depressed and nondepressed Ss would show biased or unbiased (i.e., "realistic") processing. Depressed and nondepressed Ss performed multiple trials of a task under conditions in which the 2 groups held either equivalent or different schemas regarding this task. Ss received either an unambiguous or objectively normed ambiguous feedback cue on each trial. In full support of schematic processing, depressed Ss showed negative encoding relative to nondepressed Ss only when their schemas were more negative, and both depressed and nondepressed Ss showed positively biased, negatively biased, and unbiased encoding depending on the relative feedback cue-to-schema match. Depressed and nondepressed Ss' response latencies to unambiguous feedback also supported the occurrence of schematic processing. We discuss the methodological, treatment, and "realism" implications of these findings and suggest a more precise formulation of Beck's schema theory of depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Helplessness in children of depressed and nondepressed mothers.

Helpless behaviors in 5- to 7-year-old children of depressed and nondepressed mothers were assessed through direct observation, interviews, and teacher ratings. The affective tone the mothers set in a joint puzzle task and their tendency to encourage mastery or become intrusive when their children became frustrated at the task were also assessed. Although depressed mothers set a more negative affective tone than nondepressed mothers during solvable puzzles, there were few significant differences between the 2 groups of mothers and children. Still, mothers who were more negative and hostile and less able to encourage mastery in their children had children who exhibited more helpless behaviors in the puzzle task, who were less likely to endorse active problem-solving approaches to frustrating situations, and whose teachers rated the children as less competent and more prone to helpless behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When depression breeds contempt: Reassurance seeking, self-esteem, and rejection of depressed college students by their roommates.

To test J. C. Coyne's (1976) theory of depression, students' levels of depressive symptoms, reassurance seeking, and self-esteem were assessed at Time 1, and their same-gender roommates' apprasials of them were assessed 5 wks later. Mildly depressed students engaged in the type of reassurance seeking described by Coyne. Among men, but not women, mildly depressed Ss were rejected if they strongly sought reassurance and had low self-esteem but not if they did not seek reassurance or had high self-esteem. Although induction of depressed symptoms in roommates did occur, this contagion effect did not account for the depression-rejection relationship. The prediction that unsupportive, intolerant, or unempathic others would be particularly likely to respond with rejection to reassurance-seeking depressed Ss with low self-esteem received partial support. Implications for future work on the interpersonal aspects of depression are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of models on food intake of obese and non-obese female college students.

Compared the effects of a model on the food intake of obese and nonobese females. 20 obese and 20 nonobese female Ss were paired with an experimental confederate who was either obese or nonobese. Analysis of the amount of food eaten revealed an interaction between weight status and type of confederate: obese Ss ate significantly more in the presence of an obese confederate. By contrast, nonobese Ss ate a similar amount in both conditions. There was a significant difference between the amount Ss ate and the amount they reported they had eaten, due largely to the fact that obese Ss underestimated the amount of food they had eaten. (French summary) (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negative and positive cognition in depressed and nondepressed chronic-pain patients.

Examined negative and positive automatic thoughts and attributional style in 60 men (aged 21–64 yrs) who were depressed chronic-low-back-pain (CLBP) patients, nondepressed CLBP patients, or healthy controls. Ss completed measures that included the Attribution Style Questionnaire and the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (S. D. Hollon and P. C. Kendall; see record 1981-20180-001). Depressed Ss exhibited significantly more negative automatic thoughts than nondepressed Ss and controls. Nondepressed Ss reported significantly more positive automatic thoughts than did depressed Ss and controls. No significant differences were found for attributional style. Different cognitive-behavioral interventions might be considered for depressed and nondepressed CLBP Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation of masculinity to self-esteem and self-acceptance in male professionals, college students, and clients.

Previous studies that have suggested that masculinity is a strong predictor of mental health have been generally limited to college student populations or have focused specifically on women. This study investigated the relation of masculinity to self-esteem and self-acceptance in male professionals (n?=?96), clients (n?=?55), and college students (n?=?73). The Personal Orientation Inventory, Bem Sex Role Inventory, and Rotter Internal–External Locus of Control Scale were administered to the subjects, along with a demographic data sheet. Correlations were used to investigate the relation and relative predictive significance of masculinity, femininity, education, occupation, and locus of control to self-esteem and self-acceptance. Masculinity was found to be the best predictor of self-esteem for male professionals and clients, and the best predictor of self-acceptance for clients. Femininity did not correlate with self-esteem or self-acceptance in any group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Judgment of contingency: Cognitive biases in depressed and nondepressed subjects.

In this research I investigated whether the use of relevant affective outcomes influences depressed and nondepressed subjects' judgment of contingency. Similar to previous studies (Alloy & Abramson, 1979, Experiments 1 and 2), Experiments 1 and 2 confirmed that when the outcome is affectively neutral (i.e., the onset of a light) depressed subjects make accurate judgments of contingency, whereas nondepressed subjects show (in noncontingent situations) a significant illusion of control. In Experiments 3 and 4 (a contingency situation and a noncontingency situation, respectively) different types of sentences (negative self-referent, negative other-referent, positive self-referent, positive other-referent) were used as outcomes. Although depressed subjects were more reluctant to show biased judgments than were the nondepressed subjects, in noncontingency situations depressed subjects made overestimated judgments of contingency when the outcomes were negative self-referent sentences. Results are discussed with regard to current cognitive theories of depression, particularly the learned helplessness model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributional, perceptual, and affective responses to depressed and nondepressed marital partners.

Husbands of wives with (n?=?22) or without (n?=?23) a history of a depressive disorder indicated their attributions about and affective reactions to real and hypothetical positive and negative events occurring to their wives, rated their wives on personality traits categorized as depression-related and depression-neutral, and reported their own marital satisfaction. Husbands of depressed, relative to nondepressed, wives made more dispositional attributions, reported more negative affect in reaction to negative events, and indicated less marital satisfaction. Depressed wives were rated more negatively on both depression-related and depression-neutral personality traits. Results are interpreted as suggesting that spouses of depressed wives have a generalized negative view of their wives, which may also be operating within distressed marriages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Communication patterns and response to treatment among depressed and nondepressed maritally distressed couples.

Compared 35 maritally distressed couples assigned to 1 of 3 cognitive behavioral marital therapy (BMT) groups. Groups represented (1) couples in which 1 spouse was depressed at pretest, (2) couples in which 1 spouse showed psychopathology other than depression, and (3) couples who showed no symptoms of individual psychopathology. Ss were administered, pre- and posttreatment, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Pretreatment couples in Group 1 were the oldest and the least maritally satisfied, and expressed the most negative communication. 12 wks of BMT was an effective treatment modality for all groups when compared with a group of 12 couples on a wait list. BMT significantly increased marital adjustment for all 3 treatment groups and decreased the rates of negative communication. BMT significantly decreased the level of depression in Group 1 and the level of psychopathology in Group 2. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Selection of depressed and nondepressed subjects on the basis of self-report data.

Investigated whether an increase in accurate classifications could be obtained by using 2 simultaneously administered self-report measures or by several successive administrations of 1 self-report measure. 568 Ss (mean age 39.5 yrs) participated in the study. This hypothesis was supported, but the obtained increase was only moderate. A 2-stage procedure for selecting depressed Ss is recommended. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evaluating the continuity of symptomatology between depressed and nondepressed individuals.

Debate is contentious concerning whether depression should be viewed as a distinct category or as a continuum including overlapping normal and clinical phenomena. A nonparametric item response model was used to evaluate whether the probability of expressing individual symptoms differed between nondepressed and clinically depressed adults experiencing similar levels of overall severity. Even though depressed and nondepressed individuals were equated in terms of overall severity, differences on specific symptoms emerged. Depressed mood, anhedonia, and suicidality were more likely to be expressed in depressed than in nondepressed individuals, whereas hypochondriasis and middle insomnia were more likely to be expressed in nondepressed individuals at similar levels of severity. Such differences are inconsistent with the view of depression as a simple continuum. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavior-state matching and synchrony in mother-infant interactions of nondepressed versus depressed dyads.

Behavior-state matching and synchrony in interactions were assessed in 48 depressed and nondepressed mother–infant dyads when the infants were 3 months old. Attentive/affective behavior states were coded for the infants and mothers on a negative to positive scale. The depressed mothers and their infants matched negative behavior states more often and positive behavior states less often than did the nondepressed dyads. The total percentage of time spent in matching behavior states was less for the depressed than for the nondepressed dyads. Cross-spectral analyses of the mothers' and the infants' behavior-state time series suggested only a trend for greater coherence or synchrony in the interactions of the nondepressed dyads. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-reinforcement and recall: Differential deficits in depressed and nondepressed psychiatric inpatients.

16 depressed and 12 nondepressed psychiatric inpatients and 19 nondepressed hospital employees (18–60 yrs old) were administered the Beck Depression Inventory, Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, and a verbal recognition task. Ss' administration and recall of self-reinforcements and self-punishments were assessed. As predicted, depressed Ss administered fewer self-reinforcements and a greater number of self-punishments than hospital employees; however, they did not differ on either of these measures from nondepressed patients. In terms of recall, depressed patients recalled giving themselves fewer reinforcements and a greater number of punishments than was actually the case. Whereas a low rate of self-reinforcement may be characteristic of global psychopathology, deficits in the recall of self-reinforcement and self-punishment were specific to depression. Results are discussed with reference to both cognitive and self-reinforcement conceptualizations of depression. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)