A Method for evaluating limiting drawing ratios

Sufficient data have now been generated to assess the influence of material, process, and tooling variables on the limiting drawing ratio, when deep drawing cylindrical cups from circular blanks. The influence of these parameters is less well understood in the deep drawing of nonaxisymmetric cups, and the data that exist have generally been collected from drawing tests. A theoretical approach is presented for predicting the limiting drawing ratio when deep drawing prismatic cups. For a given blank geometry, the drawing load is calculated to plastically deform the flange, overcome friction between the flange and the blank holder, and to bend the material over the die radius. Deformation in the cup wall is ignored. The onset of yielding in the flange is determined using a finite-element code. The calculated drawing load is compared to a theoretical maximum, and when the two values coincide, this yields the limiting blank size under the assumed processing conditions, i.e., blank holder force, die radius, blank shape, and coefficient of friction. The theoretical predictions were compared with experimental results when deep drawing square cups from optimum blank shapes, and the correspondence was found to be acceptable.     

正多边形盒零件冲压成形凸缘变形区的应力分布计算

首先给出正多边形盒零件凸缘变形区的应力分布式 ,接着分析了凸缘变形区的应力变化规律 ,并以0Cr18Ni9板材和方盒零件为算例给出了凸缘变形区的应力分布曲线。正多边形盒零件凸缘变形区圆角部分的拉深变形是发生皱曲和破裂之源并向直边部分转移材料 ,使直边部分松弛乃至皱曲。因此 ,对于皱曲通常选择设置压边装置 (压边圈、拉深筋等 )来解决。对于破裂通常选择增大侧壁间圆角半径或多次拉深来解决。正多边形盒零件冲压成形最好采用分区 (分块 )变压边力拉深或分区 (分块 )恒压边力拉深     

板料成形有限元模拟的压边力控制方法研究

采用新的研究方法模拟水槽拉伸的实际压边过程。压边力采用不同的压边间隙和施加不同的分离力来实现。通过一个系统的研究方案来确定一个优化的压边力和压边间隙。研究发现 ,板料的法兰区域随着压边间隙的增加起皱变形严重 ,由于起皱引起的板料刚度上升导致压边力迅速上升。采用分离力时的模拟厚度比压边间隙小是由于法兰区域的变压边力。通过厚度和法兰边缘实验和模拟结果的比较 ,发现采用压边间隙可以更好地模拟板料成形的压边过程     

基于载荷下降法的双相钢DP590拉深减薄率研究

采用载荷下降法研究了双相钢DP590在不同压边力下拉深成形的减薄率。采用BCS-50AR通用板材成形性试验机进行有无润滑条件的对比拉深试验,获得成形力-凸模位移关系曲线。试验结果发现,拉深件凸缘部位和凹模圆角处的润滑有利于拉深成形,而无润滑条件下的拉深容易破裂。拉深件凸缘部位增厚,凹模圆角处和筒壁部位均有不同程度的减薄。危险断面处的减薄率最大,破裂情况下的最小减薄率为28.6%,无破裂情况下的最大减薄率为19.3%,达到实际生产要求。     

Evaluation of stamping lubricants using the deep drawing test

This paper presents a practical methodology that uses the deep drawing test and finite element (FE) analysis to evaluate stamping lubricants under near production conditions. In stamping operations good lubrication helps to reduce wrinkling, premature fracture, and localized thinning. Furthermore, lubrication also reduces tool wear in large-volume production. Determination of reliable friction data associated with a given lubrication system is also important for successful process design and simulation by FE analysis. In this study, five stamping lubricants (four dry film lubes and one wet lube) were evaluated using the deep drawing test. The performance of the lubricants were evaluated based on: (a) maximum punch force measured, (b) the maximum applicable blank holder force (BHF), (c) the draw-in length, (d) the perimeter of flange after test, (e) the change of surface roughness, and (f) the inspection of surface topography. The coefficient of friction for each lubricant tested was determined through the FE-based inverse analysis by matching the predicted and measured values of the load-stroke curve and the draw-in length. This study showed that one of the tested lubricants was most effective, regardless of test speed and the magnitude of BHF. The methodology used was shown to be effective in evaluating various lubricants for sheet metal forming and accurately differentiating their performances.     

Technology of sheet hydroforming with a movable female die

An improved sheet hydroforming process is proposed and investigated experimentally and numerically. A movable female die keeps in contact with the deformed area of the sheet blank so that further deformation of the deformed area is restricted. Under the sealing, the sheet blank under the flange can be drawn in. So the hydroformed part has less thinning than the hydrobulge formed part only, and the limit drawing ratio of the sheet can be remarkably improved. This process is especially suitable for forming of small batch production of sheet metal parts with complicated shapes. The female die can be replaced with other female die of various shapes, and can also be made of very cheap materials such as plaster and hard wood instead of metal when the part number is very small. Thus complex-shaped sheet parts can be formed with less expensive tool systems.In this paper, the hydroforming processes of part A (without a movable die) and part B (with a movable die) were investigated by experiment and by elastoplastic FEM. The effects of various process parameters on the deformation of the sheet blanks were investigated. The forming conditions affecting wrinkling and rupture have been analyzed. The effects of friction and contacting force acting on the experimental results are also discussed.     

板料冲裁过程中材料流动与断面形成的有限元模拟

运用有限元方法对精冲过程中不同压边力和反顶力对材料流动特性的影响进行分析,研究表明,较大的压边力和反顶力可以显著抑制精冲过程中材料涡流的形成。继而分析了断面光洁面随着压边力和反顶力增加而提高的原因,提出有限元分析方法可以有效地预测精密冲裁零件的断面质量。     

小直径磨棒磨削加工TiC颗粒增强钢基复合材料GT35

为探究TiC颗粒增强钢基复合材料GT35合理的加工参数和冷却润滑条件,研究其对切削力、表面质量及刀具磨损的影响规律,采用小直径磨棒以侧面磨削方式开展试验。结果表明:干磨削会引起磨棒烧伤,极压磨削油的润滑效果优于水基合成磨削液的;磨棒在极压磨削油润滑下,磨削工件12 min后进入稳定磨损状态,其主要磨损形式为磨粒破碎、磨粒磨耗和磨粒脱落;主轴转速对切削力的影响大于进给速度的,且转速越高,切削力越小;工件表面粗糙度主要与磨棒磨粒出露高度的平整度有关,受加工参数的影响较小。用小直径磨棒磨削加工GT35材料时,应选择极压磨削油润滑,高主轴转速、中速进给的加工方式,以获得良好的刀具寿命、工件加工表面质量及适当的加工效率。      

拼焊板盒形件冲压成形失效及应变路径分析

采用自制液压机和分瓣压边圈模具,通过模拟仿真和实冲试验,变化各工艺参数,研究分析拼焊板方盒件冲压成形的应变路径、焊缝移动和成形极限,以提高其成形性能。研究表明,厚/薄侧压边力的大小和分布对破裂危险点的应变路径和成形裕度有很大的影响,合理的压边力分布可调节失效破裂的位置,减少焊缝移动和提高成形极限深度;凹模圆角半径的增大,对薄侧侧壁圆角处破裂危险点应变路径影响较大,拼焊板盒形件成形极限深度逐渐增大;厚度比较小时,破裂出现在薄侧圆角处,而厚度比较大时,焊缝移动量大,破裂易出现在薄侧焊缝处;板料毛坯形状和尺寸对失效破裂的位置和成形性能影响显著。因此,以薄侧侧壁圆角处和薄侧焊缝位置附近为破裂危险点,通过优化压边力、凹模圆角半径、板料厚度比、板料毛坯形状和尺寸等工艺参数,改变危险点的应变路径,调节失效破裂的位置,减小其焊缝移动量,可有效地提高拼焊板方盒件的冲压成形性能。     

The total energy and the total entropy of force signals — new parameters for monitoring oblique turning operations

In unmanned CNC turning operations, the accuracy of tool wear predictions is very important for accurate tool replacement policies and avoiding unnecessary tool insert changes. This paper introduces two new parameters, namely the total energy and the total entropy of force signals, for tool condition monitoring. The correlation between the new parameters, tool wear and a wide range of cutting conditions is examined. The experimental results show that the energy of force signal can be reliably used to monitor tool flank and crater wear over a wide range of cutting conditions. However, the total entropy of forces does not appear to be sensitive to feed rate, rake angle and tool wear. The experimental results also indicate that crater wear causes an increase in the effective rake angle resulting in lower total energy of forces. For some particular shapes of worn tool, however, the crater wear results in a decreased rake angle which increases the total energy of forces. The influence of crater wear on forces and the root mean square of acoustic emission (AErms) signals is also observed in this research.     

板材拉深成形过程中摩擦条件与压边力设定关系研究

利用“板料拉深成形摩擦系数测试系统”，研究不同种类的润滑剂在不同压边力值设定条件下，拉深过程中的摩擦系数与压边力、拉深力与压边力之间的关系。从两种实验用坯料物理模拟的结果得知：实验用的油基润滑剂其粘度值越大，拉深性能越好，受压边力数值设定的影响也越小；坯料尺寸的增加使拉深成形变得困难，但对摩擦系数的影响很小。该研究结果有助于生产现场中润滑剂的选用和最佳压边力数值的确定。     

On the influence of single grit micro-geometry on grinding behavior of ductile and brittle materials

Recently it has been proven that highly engineered grinding/polishing tools can be manufactured with controlled shapes and distributions of abrasives. This research is directed to understand the influence of the shapes of the micro-cutting edges (i.e. circular/square/triangular base frustums generated by laser ablation), emulating grits of these engineered abrasive tools, on the material removal mechanism for workpiece materials of different mechanical properties (ductile – copper, brittle – sapphire). 2D/3D micro-profilometry, scanning electron microscopy supported by sensory signals (e.g. cutting forces) enabled to understand the relationship between the ploughing/shearing of ductile and brittle behaviour materials upon the number and orientation of the cutting edges that emulate the tested single grit shapes. It was found that for copper the increase in number of cutting edges (NoCE) of the grits results in more localised material pile-up and the reduction of plastic deformations with inherent decrease of specific cutting force; nevertheless, it became apparent that to diminish specific cutting forces, both NoCE and effective contact area between the grit and workpiece material need to be considered. For sapphire, shearing/fracturing phenomena were preponderant in the material removal mechanism when using square/triangular shaped grits while major plastic deformations were found for circular base frustum; significant reduction of specific cutting forces were noted with the increase of NoCE. This preliminary work enables the understanding on the implications of using particular grit shapes when utilising the novel edge-controlled grinding/polishing tools for machining ductile/brittle workpiece materials.     

Sheet metal forming analysis of planar anisotropic materials with a proper numerical scheme for the blank holding force

A modified membrane finite element with a proper formulation for planar anisotropic materials is introduced to correctly enhance the flexural rigidity not only within an element but among elements. The strain energy term in the formulation is decomposed into the membrane energy term for mean stretching and the bending energy term for pure bending. This procedure needs careful evaluation for the orientation of the anisotropic axes. The formulation is then combined with an effective algorithm to deal with the contact between the material and the dies. Distribution of the blank holding force is calculated in each step according to the thickness in the flange region. The calculation employs a special relation between the thickness and the blank holding force. The simulation examples demonstrate the validity and versatility of the computer code by showing the earing phenomenon in circular cup drawing and the variation of the blank holding force in rectangular cup drawing. The results shows that the thickness variation in the flange region redistributes the blank holding force during the deformation. The present algorithm can predict more precise contour lines in the flange region and a more precise shape and strain distribution.     

Development of a new process for producing deep square cups through conical dies

In this article, a new process for increasing the drawability of square cups has been developed. A circular blank is pushed by a flat-headed square punch through a conical die with a square aperture. The deformed blank conforms to the square shape of the die throat and finally a square cup is obtained. The developed technique has a simple tooling set in which the drawing process can be efficiently preformed in a single-acting stroke without using draw beads or blankholder. A commercial finite element simulation package, DYNAFORM, is used to investigate the developed setup in order to determine the optimum die cone angle. An experimental setup is built accordingly with a half cone angle of 18°. Brass alloy (67/33 Cu–Zn) and commercially pure aluminum (Al99.5w) sheets are used in the experimentations. The effects of the original blank thickness (t_o=1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 mm) and the orientation of the blank rolling direction (0°, 22.5°, 45°, and 67.5°) to the punch side on the limiting drawing ratio (LDR) and punch load are experimentally investigated. The present process successfully produces square cups with drawing ratios of 2.92 for brass and 2.74 for aluminum. The new process has shown superiority over the conventional methods through achieving high drawing ratio especially for thick sheets (2–3 mm). Comparison between experimental results and the available published work showed that the required punch force in the new process is significantly reduced while the LDR is increased.     

Development of an Optical Sensor for the Measurement of the Material Flow in Deep Drawing Processes

In this paper a new optical sensor and its applications are presented. The prediction of faults that occur during the layout of deep drawing processes (e.g. cracks) remains a significant problem. Therefore, at the IFUM a new optical sensor principle has been developed for the contact-free recording of the material flow. The sensor recognizes special patterns on the sheet surface. The measured material (low can be used for the determination of local strain. The optical Sensor could be utilized instead of using expensive optical systems or manual methods (e.g. with a measurement grid) for the deformation measurement, which still require a special preparation of the specimen.Furthermore, the material flow can be used as the controlled variable for the closed loop control of deep drawing processes with varying blank holder forces along the flange. On the one hand the data recorded with the new optical Sensor is used to increase the quality of the FE-simulation. On the other hand a press with a multipoint drawing tool will be regulated by the control loop. A fuzzy controller is under development for the automatic connection between the material flow and the blank holding force.     

方盒形带凸缘件的板料形状优化设计

本文用大变形刚塑性有限元模拟正方形板料在方冲头拉延下的凸缘变形过程，并以所获得的工件形状与金属流动方向为依据，对初始板料形状进行修正。对修正后的坯料形状进行二次模拟，获得了与给定凸缘形状基本吻合的拉延件形状。文中对不同凸缘圆角对极料优化形状的影响作了计算，讨论了在保证边界轮廓位置不变的条件下网格划分的方法。     

Deep drawing of cylindrical cups with friction-actuated blank holding

The draw force and the blank-holder variations that are obtained when drawing with friction-actuated blank holding are determined theoretically for a urethane pad of particular dimensions. A prototype tooling for blanking and drawing of sheet metal of thickness 1 mm and less to cups of diameter 100 mm at draw ratio of 1.85 with such a blank holder has been designed, fabricated and tested. Experimental results from the above tooling are presented, these including the punch and blank-holder force variations with stroke and the thickness strains in the cup wall. The experimentally-measured punch force variations are compared with the theoretical predictions. The theoretical and the experimentally-measured blank-holding force variations are presented, together with the variation of critical blank-holding force that is needed to suppress wrinkling. The differences between the theoretical and the experimental force variations are discussed.     

Experimental studies of deep drawing of AZ31B magnesium alloy sheet under various thermal conditions

The effect of temperature and temperature gradient within the blank on formability of AZ31B-O magnesium alloy is investigated. The effect of blank size on the success of isothermal deep drawing is studied. As blank size increases, forming under isothermal conditions becomes more difficult. To address this issue, non-isothermal forming is investigated and a formability window is identified in which the temperature at the punch nose must lie below the flange temperature to promote enhanced drawability, but above the temperature for activation of non-basal slip systems (to avoid low temperature fracture). The effect of punch speed on the forming forces, thickness and strain distribution within the formed cup is also investigated. At higher punch speeds, small cracks initiate at the punch radius region which increases the possibility of failure. Finally, the fracture surfaces from each thermal condition are observed using scanning electron microscopy. It is demonstrated that the fracture mechanism during deep drawing of magnesium alloy AZ31B is dependent on the forming temperature which controls the active deformation mechanisms.     

盒形件法兰皱曲失稳的临界条件

在盒形件拉深成形智能化控制过程中,为了防止法兰起皱的产生,必须认识起皱发生的机理,进而对起皱的发生进行控制.本文基于一点应力状态的C-B准则建立了应用与判断法兰起皱的判断准则,完善了起皱的预测方法,给出了获得起皱的临界行程与压边力关系曲线的方法,这为进一步实现法兰起皱的实时预测提供了依据.     

An experimental investigation on effect of minimum quantity lubrication in machining AISI 1040 steel

The growing demands for high productivity of machining need use of high cutting velocity and feed rate. Such machining inherently produces high cutting temperature, which not only reduces tool life but also impairs the product quality. Application of cutting fluids changes the performance of machining operations because of their lubrication, cooling, and chip flushing functions. But the conventional cutting fluids are not that effective in such high production machining, particularly in continuous cutting of materials likes steels. Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) presents itself as a viable alternative for turning with respect to tool wear, heat dissipation, and machined surface quality. This study compares the mechanical performance of MQL to completely dry lubrication for the turning of AISI-1040 steel based on experimental measurement of cutting temperature, chip reduction coefficient, cutting forces, tool wears, surface finish, and dimensional deviation. Results indicated that the use of near dry lubrication leads to lower cutting temperature and cutting force, favorable chip–tool interaction, reduced tool wears, surface roughness, and dimensional deviation.