An investigation into effectiveness of different reflective learning strategies for learning operational software

Skill certification promotion is one of the main policies facilitated by the technological and vocational education, where application software instruction is regarded as the core curriculum to foster skill certification. With its close connection with problem-solving learning, application software instruction relies heavily on hands-on operation incorporating information technology to adequately unravel the challenges where living or working application is simulated as problem situations. According to Dewey (1963) and Edwards (1996), the process of reflection is characterized by the inference course where learners attempt to analyze and solve the problems. However, more evidence is needed to decide what reflective learning strategies are effective for students' learning. Application software operation is categorized as procedural knowledge. Repeated drills are requisite to reach the ultimate goal of spontaneous reaction without thinking. Features of CAL system offer a well-rounded environment to meet the demands. The purposes of this study were 1) to investigate how different reflective learning strategies can affect learning effectiveness of operational application software acquisition, 2) to identify effective learning strategies and to incorporate the CAL approach with instructional practices to foster learning performance. Aiming at characteristics of operational software, this study proposed operational software learning strategy theory model based on reflective learning and Adaptive Character of Thought-Rational (ACT-R) model theories. The proposed model modified the reflective learning theory and added cyclical loop into CAL to fit for operational software instruction. The CAL system is developed and incorporated into learning activities of reflective learning theory strategy model by collecting frequent operation errors made in the first-year experiment as the source drill items. This study is conducted in a two-year sequence. A total of 172 second-grade students was recruited from a vocational high school. Different reflective learning strategies, individual and group reflective learning strategy, are implemented on two experimental groups in the first year. CAL strategy is later added into the experimental groups in the second year. The results suggest that group reflective learning strategy can enhance learning effectiveness of the holistic and medium-score group students. When reflective learning strategy is incorporated with CAL, in addition to maintaining the first-year learning effectiveness, learning effectiveness of the holistic and low-score group students can be benefited by individual reflective learning strategy. Furthermore, reflective learning incorporating with CAL has greater learning effectiveness than the learning without CAL.     

Effects of an online learning community on active and reflective learners’ learning performance and attitudes in a face-to-face undergraduate course

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an Online Learning Community (OLC) on active and reflective learners’ learning performance and attitude in a face-to-face undergraduate digital design course. 814 freshmen in an introductory digital design course were randomly assigned to one of two treatments: one offered students an OLC, which required students to discuss their assignments and readings online and participate in certain online learning activities; the other one did not offer the OLC (NC: no online learning community), but required involving students in face-to-face discussion. Individual students’ learning styles were measured using Felder and Solomon’s Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire. Results indicated that both active and reflective learners in the OLC intervention performed significantly better than those who were in the NC intervention. Results also indicated that active learners performed significantly better than reflective learners in the NC intervention; however, reflective learners performed significantly better than active learners in the OLC intervention. No significant difference between active and reflective learners’ attitudes was found. These findings indicated that OLC might be an effective means for improving both active and reflective learners’ learning performance and attitudes; however, its effects on active learners might not be as great as on reflective learners.     

The POD model: Using communities of practice theory to conceptualise student teachers’ professional learning online

This paper focuses on the broad outcomes of a research project which aimed to analyse and model student teachers’ learning in the online components of an initial teacher education course. It begins with discussion of the methodological approach adopted for the case study, which combined conventional data gathering techniques with those which are facilitated using the ‘panoptical’ tools of the VLE. The author has synthesized case study evidence, learning theory (Community of practice theory) and the advice of a key theoretician, to produce an original model of student teachers’ learning online within a professional online district (POD). The most distinctive feature of the POD model is the learning-curriculum dichotomy which recognises the potential of a VLE as a venue in which student teachers, working together in a community of practice, construct their own curriculum (both formal and informal/’hidden’. The paper also examines the key technological and pedagogical issues which affect students’ online learning.     

Discussing teaching videocases online: Perspectives of preservice and inservice EFL teachers in Taiwan

This study investigated the application of an online videocase discussion community into fostering preservice and inservice EFL (English as a foreign language) teachers’ professional development in Taiwan. This investigation further revealed the nature and development of discussion discourse and the participating teachers’ perceptions of this online learning experience. Also included were potential concerns or difficulties encountered by these community members. There were 21 preservice teachers, 7 secondary school teachers, and 4 university teachers involved in this study. Multiple data collection methods included teaching videos, online discussion messages, interviews, reflection journals, and an open-ended questionnaire. The findings showed that the preservice and inservice teachers appeared to respectively play different roles in discussing teaching videocases online. Yet, what they noticed in the teaching events shifted from diverse to similar focuses after engaging in online videocase discussion for almost one year. These teachers further perceived professional learning opportunities in this community, albeit several issues might hinder some of them from joining the discussion frequently. Pedagogical implications and research suggestions are offered for teacher educators and researchers to further codify and document teacher professional development in various online videocase discussion contexts.     

Interaction analysis in a ‘Learning by Doing’ problem-based professional development context

This paper explores the concept and practice of interaction within a blended problem-based learning (PBL) module for academic professional development in higher education. A qualitative study spanning two years of the lived experiences of 17 academic staff in a blended PBL module was considered likely to provide a much-needed analysis of current thinking and practice on the potential of interaction. Relevant constructivist theories are applied to face-to-face PBL tutorials, online discussions, focus group interviews and reflective papers. For designers and tutors in blended PBL, it is important to seek best practices for how to combine instructional strategies in classroom and computer-mediated environments that take advantage of the strengths of each and avoid their weaknesses. Specific aspects of interaction (peer, tutor and the blended PBL learning experience) within face-to-face and online PBL tutorials are analysed to provide research-based information about the realities of delivering a PBL programme using a variety of current learning technologies.     

Nurturing reflective teaching during critical-thinking instruction in a computer simulation program

Nurturing reflective teaching and improving critical-thinking instruction are two important goals in teacher education, but these are only achievable when teachers-in-training are provided with opportunities for building professional knowledge and for exhibiting reflective teaching practices. A computer simulation program (CS-TGCTS) was therefore developed here, and its effectiveness is explained in this study. From 149 preservice teachers participating in this study, a pretest–posttest control group design was defined by four student groups and two treatments. The central hypothesis was that increasing participants' self-awareness of teacher behaviors and enhancing mindful learning in professional knowledge would provoke reflective teaching and further bring about improvements in teacher behaviors. The findings support the hypothesis and suggest that the CS-TGCTS simulation is an effective vehicle for improving preservice teachers' reflective teaching in critical-thinking instruction.     

Don’t believe strangers: Online consumer reviews and the role of social psychological distance

Participants in online consumer review (OCR) communications are complete strangers. There is barely any research that has examined the relationship established between these participants. Nevertheless, when the receiver evaluates an OCR, he/she connects with the reviewer and perceives the social psychological distance from him/her. This study aimed to analyse whether the social psychological distance is the underlying mechanism that mediates the effect of OCR aspects on the receiver's responses. The OCR aspects tested are profile photo, linguistic style and reported experience, while final variables reflect responses related to the review and the product.     

The effect of reflective learning e-journals on reading comprehension and communication in language learning

This study focused on the use of reflective learning e-journals in a university web-based English as a foreign language (EFL) course. In the study, a multimedia-based English programme comprising fifteen different units was delivered online as a one-semester instructional course. Ninety-eight undergraduate students participated, and they were divided into two groups: the treatment group used reflective learning e-journals, while the control group completed content-related exercises. The study investigated the effects of reflective learning e-journals and how students used them to aid learning. Results show that when learning from web-based instruction, students who used reflective learning e-journals outperformed students who did not do so in terms of reading comprehension. Using reflective e-journals improved the academic performance of learners in the online course. In addition, journal writing students claimed that they also improved their organisational skills and writing abilities through their reflective learning e-journal writing and found the journal writing to be a very helpful tool in reviewing the course and preparing for the exam.     

An empirical development of critical value factors (CVF) of online learning activities: An application of activity theory and cognitive value theory

According to activity theory, activities are at the center of human behavior. Extensive attention has been given in literature to the success and effectiveness of online learning programs. Value theory suggests that human perceived value is a critical construct in investigating what is important to individuals. However, very limited attention has been given in literature to the role of users’ perceived value of learning activities in educational settings. Scholars suggest that additional studies on learning activities are needed in order to progress the current knowledge of the use of information systems in education. Therefore, this study investigated issues related to learners’ perceived value by uncovering the critical value factors (CVFs) of online learning activities. Participants in this study included 209 graduate students attending an online learning program. This study extended the first phase done in a prior research to uncover the CVFs of online learning activities. Results of this research study produced five reliable CVFs: (a) collaborative, social, and passive learning activities; (b) formal communication activities; (c) formal learning activities; (d) logistic activities; and (e) printing activities.     

A Fast Simplified Fuzzy ARTMAP Network

We present an algorithmic variant of the simplified fuzzy ARTMAP (SFAM) network, whose structure resembles those of feed-forward networks. Its difference with Kasuba's model is discussed, and their performances are compared on two benchmarks. We show that our algorithm is much faster than Kasuba's algorithm, and by increasing the number of training samples, the difference in speed grows enormously.The performances of the SFAM and the MLP (multilayer perceptron) are compared on three problems: the two benchmarks, and the Farsi optical character recognition (OCR) problem. For training the MLP two different variants of the backpropagation algorithm are used: the BPLRF algorithm (backpropagation with plummeting learning rate factor) for the benchmarks, and the BST algorithm (backpropagation with selective training) for the Farsi OCR problem.The results obtained on all of the three case studies with the MLP and the SFAM, embedded in their customized systems, show that the SFAM's convergence in fast-training mode, is faster than that of MLP, and online operation of the MLP is faster than that of the SFAM. On the benchmark problems the MLP has much better recognition rate than the SFAM. On the Farsi OCR problem, the recognition error of the SFAM is higher than that of the MLP on ill-engineered datasets, but equal on well-engineered ones. The flexible configuration of the SFAM, i.e. its capability to increase the size of the network in order to learn new patterns, as well as its simple parameter adjustment, remain unchallenged by the MLP.     

An empirical development of critical value factors (CVF) of online learning activities: An application of activity theory and cognitive value theory

According to activity theory, activities are at the center of human behavior. Extensive attention has been given in literature to the success and effectiveness of online learning programs. Value theory suggests that human perceived value is a critical construct in investigating what is important to individuals. However, very limited attention has been given in literature to the role of users’ perceived value of learning activities in educational settings. Scholars suggest that additional studies on learning activities are needed in order to progress the current knowledge of the use of information systems in education. Therefore, this study investigated issues related to learners’ perceived value by uncovering the critical value factors (CVFs) of online learning activities. Participants in this study included 209 graduate students attending an online learning program. This study extended the first phase done in a prior research to uncover the CVFs of online learning activities. Results of this research study produced five reliable CVFs: (a) collaborative, social, and passive learning activities; (b) formal communication activities; (c) formal learning activities; (d) logistic activities; and (e) printing activities.     

Examining effectiveness of communities of practice in online English for academic purposes (EAP) assessment in virtual classes

The literature on English for academic purposes (EAP) methodology highlights the significance of learners' engagement in learning language (Hyland, 2006) in mainstream general and online contexts. Blogs have been recommended in many studies as having the potential to bring the sense of community and collaboration in online classes. Therefore, this study sought to investigate whether blogs in large classes would help students enhance their perceptions of learning. To this end, Forty-two undergraduate students of Information Technology (IT) at an Iranian university participated in a weblog writing course in order to promote collaboration and reflective learning. Instrumentation included a questionnaire of perceived learning and sense of community, semi-structured interviews, and participant observations. The findings revealed a significant difference in perceived learning between the students with low sense of community and those with a high sense of community. Based on the qualitative findings of the study, we suggest an assessment framework incorporating constructivist and social-interactionist theories of learning in order to treat students as members of a community of learning. The findings may promise implications for gearing EAP assessment to more collaborative modes in online courses and suggest a model framework for the assessment of students in EAP online classes.     

A community of practice approach to the development of non-traditional learners through networked learning

Abstract This paper analyses a sample of online discussions to evaluate the development of adult learners as reflective practitioners within a networked learning community. The context for our study is a blended learning course offering post-experience professional training to non-traditional university students. These students are parents and carers of people with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). We use Lave and Wenger's 'communities of practice' as a theoretical framework for establishing how students develop a learning community based upon mutual engagement, joint enterprise and shared repertoires. Those three aspects are analysed according to two measures. The first focuses on learner appropriation of the professional discourse, values and goals of the ASD carer through the network. The second relates to changes in the quality of collaborative activity over time. Our analysis demonstrates that students belong to an overarching community of practice, with different subsets who work at sharing and co-constructing common understandings. This shared discourse and common notions of what constitutes good practice help create a safe interaction space for the students. Once group identity is consolidated, more challenging questions emerge and the group are able to define further common values, understandings and goals through processes of resolution.     

The influence of students and teachers characteristics on the efficacy of face-to-face and computer supported collaborative learning

In this paper we compared the efficacy of face-to-face and computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL) in increasing academic knowledge and professional competences. We also explored how students’ personality characteristics and learning strategies and teachers’ characteristics were associated with better learning outcomes in online or face-to-face contexts. One hundred and seventy students participated in 10 community psychology seminars, five online and five face-to-face. Academic and professional learning increased for participants in both settings. Tutors’ characteristics did not influence students’ learning. Students who performed better in online and in face-to-face contexts differed in some psychological variables and in their learning strategies. Overall results show that asynchronous collaborative learning online can increase professional competences normally learnt only in small face-to-face educational settings, and that CSCL can be used to provide innovative educational opportunities that fit particular needs of students with low anxiety, high problem solving efficacy, who have time management problems in their learning strategies.     

Generic reflective feedback: An effective approach to developing clinical reasoning skills

Problem‐based learning can be an effective tool to develop clinical reasoning skills. However, it traditionally takes place in tutorial groups, giving students little flexibility in how and when they learn. This pilot study compared the effectiveness of generic reflective feedback (GRF) with tutorial‐based reflective feedback on the development of students' clinical reasoning skills. Case studies were placed in an interactive software package, with GRF for the nine patient cases (36 GRF forms in total). The GRF contained information about common mistakes and omissions made by students in previous years. By design, the GRF left some clinical questions unanswered in order to prompt student reflection, enhance the development of their clinical reasoning skills and give the 2010 students (n = 53) greater control over the way in which they engaged with the unit. Clinical reasoning skills development, assessed by responses to the 36 parts across the 9 cases and in the relevant section of the final exam, was compared with the 2009 tutorial cohort (n = 47 students). GRF enabled student progression through each of the nine online cases with minimal tutor intervention. The cohort receiving GRF performed as well as those students engaging in tutorials with individualized feedback. GRF was associated with a significant increase in student satisfaction and flexibility in how and when they learned. We conclude that GRF enabled online enhancement of a case‐based clinical reasoning unit. Further research on how GRF can optimize learning in different online settings is warranted.     

A contextual game-based learning approach to improving students' inquiry-based learning performance in social studies courses

Inquiry-based learning, an effective instructional strategy, can be in the form of a problem or task for triggering student engagement. However, how to situate students in meaningful inquiry activities remains to be settled, especially for social studies courses. In this study, a contextual educational computer game is developed to improve students' learning performance based on an inquiry-based learning strategy. An experiment has been conducted on an elementary school social studies course to evaluate the effects of the proposed approach on the inquiry-based learning performances of students with different learning styles. The experimental results indicate that the proposed approach effectively enhanced the students' learning effects in terms of their learning achievement, learning motivation, satisfaction degree and flow state. Furthermore, it is also found that the proposed approach benefited the “active” learning style students more than the “reflective” style students in terms of learning achievement. This suggests the need to provide additional supports to students with particular learning styles in the future.     

The interplay between cognitive and motivational variables in a supportive online learning system for secondary physical education

A path model was used to test the unique and interactive effects of cognitive and motivational variables when learning in a supportive online learning system, Collaborative Inquiry System (CIS). In this student-centered learning environment, students interact with computer simulations and are assisted by online scaffolds intended to help them learn complex scientific concepts. The present study also explored the relationships between students’ motivational, cognitive, and metacognitive strategy use and online performance. In total, 178 tenth-grade students participated in the study. The statistical analyses revealed that students’ learning goals and cognitive preferences predicted metacognitive strategy use and later influenced their performance. Prior knowledge is a predictor of neither metacognitive strategy use nor learning goals and need for cognition, but is nevertheless an important determinant of online performance. Discussions on how to accommodate the different needs of students with varying levels of prior knowledge, goal orientation, and cognitive preference in a supportive learning system are provided based on the results.     

Instructor accents in online education and their effect on learning and attitudes

Reductions in perceptual fluency have been shown to negatively impact attitudes towards learning material, but not learning itself. The current study extends this work to spoken presentations and examines whether the presence of a foreign accent negatively affects learners' experience in an online learning environment. Results indicate that the presence of an instructor accent, consistent with prior work on perceptual fluency, does not impact learning, but does cause learners to rate the instructor as less effective. Further, for those who received accented presentations, changes in participants' attitudes towards both the content area and online instruction were not predicted by learning, but instead their attitude towards the instructor. This suggests that learners in online learning environments with accented narration are potentially miscalibrated, and these biases in judgement could be inappropriately linked to a specific instructor, rather than their success of learning in the field.     

Student interactions in online discussion forums: their perception on learning with business simulation games

Digital technology offers new teaching methods with controversial results over learning. They allow students to develop a more active participation in their learning process although it does not always drive to unequivocal better learning outcomes. This study aims to offer additional evidence on the contribution of business simulation games to students’ learning outcomes, considering student interactions in online discussion forums. We conducted a qualitative research with the online discussion forums of 5 different courses at bachelor and master levels, which involves 41 students’ teams. The final sample was composed of 3681 messages posted by the students. The results reveal that some generic and specific managerial skills exert a positive influence on learning outcomes. Students mostly highlighted teamwork, decision-making, information processing, reaching agreements, and dealing with uncertainty as the most relevant contributions of the game towards their learning. These results have instructional and pedagogical implications for determining the best way to enhance students’ motivation and learning outcomes when using digital technology methods, which involves recommendations that affect their design and monitoring.