Morphology and mechanical properties of unidirectional sisal– epoxy composites

Plant fibers are of increasing interest for use in composite materials. They are renewable resources and waste management is easier than with glass fibers. In the present study, longitudinal stiffness and strength as well as morphology of unidirectional sisal–epoxy composites manufactured by resin transfer molding (RTM) were studied. Horseshoe‐shaped sisal fiber bundles (technical fibers) were nonuniformly distributed in the matrix. In contrast to many wood composites, lumen was not filled by polymer matrix. Technical sisal fibers showed higher effective modulus when included in the composite material than in the technical fiber test (40 GPa as compared with 24 GPa). In contrast, the effective technical fiber strength in the composites was estimated to be around 400 MPa in comparison with a measured technical fiber tensile strength of 550 MPa. Reasons for these phenomena are discussed. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 84: 2358–2365, 2002     

Development and physico‐mechanical behavior of LDPE–sisal prepreg‐based composites

Low‐density polyethylene (LDPE)‐coated sisal fiber prepreg was prepared by using solution coating process. These coated fiber prepregs were consolidated to make composites having different weight fraction of sisal fibers in a hot compression‐molding machine. This experimental study reveals that higher loading of sisal fiber up to 57wt% in LDPE–sisal composites is possible by this technique. Mechanical and abrasive wear characteristics of these composites were determined. The tensile strength of composites increased with the increase in sisal fiber concentration. Coating thickness of LDPE was varied by changing the viscosity of LDPE–xylene solution that manifested to different weight fraction of fiber in sisal–LDPE composites. Mechanical, dynamic mechanical, and abrasive wear characteristics of these composites were determined. The tensile strength and modulus of sisal composites reached to 17.4 and 265 MPa, respectively, as compared to 7.1 and 33MPa of LDPE. Storage modulus of sisal composites LD57 reached to 2.7 × 10⁹ MPa at 40°C as compared to 8.1 × 10⁸ MPa of LDPE. Abrasive wear properties of LDPE and its composites were determined under multi‐pass mode; pure LDPE showed minimum specific wear rate. The specific wear rate of composites decreased with the sliding distance. Increase of coated sisal fiber content increased the specific wear rate at all the sliding distances, which has been explained on the basis of worn surface microstructures observed by using SEM. POLYM. COMPOS., 2013. © 2013 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Resol–vegetable fibers composites

Vegetable fibers like cotton, sisal, and sugar cane bagasse have been used as reinforcement in a polymeric matrix. Because of its low cost and affinity with lignocellulosic fibers, a phenol‐formaldehyde resin —resol— was selected as the matrix. Composites were prepared by compression molding. The influence of fiber volume fraction‐V_f‐in flexural properties and density of composites has been studied. Cotton and sugar cane bagasse composites present a V_f value at which flexural strength and modulus are maxima. However, sisal composites show a continuous rise in flexural strength and modulus as fiber volume fraction increases, up to 76%, which is the highest concentration studied. Composites made with raw cotton show the highest values of strength and stiffness. The actual density of composites is always lower than theoretical density, due to the presence of voids. Scanning Electron Microscopy reveals a good adhesion between fiber and matrix in the composites. In addition, the flexural properties were analyzed with an efficiency criterion, which relates strength and stiffness with density, and the values obtained were compared with those corresponding to typical structural materials. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 77: 1832–1840, 2000     

The effects on mechanical properties and crystallization of poly (l‐lactic acid) reinforced by cellulosic fibers with different scales

Bacterial cellulose (BC), microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), and bamboo cellulosic fibers (BCFs) were used to reinforce poly(l ‐lactic acid) (PLLA) based bio‐composites. The mechanical properties and crystallization of the composites were studied through mechanical testing, differential scanning calorimetry, X‐ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and polarizing microscope. The incorporation of all three kinds of cellulose increased the stiffness of the composites compared to pure PLLA. The reinforcing effect of the MCC in the composites is most significant. The Young's modulus and impact toughness of the MCC/PLLA composites were increased by 44.4% and 58.8%, respectively. The tensile strength of the MCC/PLLA composites was increased to 71 MPa from 61 MPa of PLLA. However, the tensile strength of the composites reinforced with BCF or BC was lower than PLLA. The three kinds of cellulosic fibers improved the crystallization of PLLA. The BC with smallest size provided the composites with smallest grain and highest crystallinity. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014 , 131, 41077.     

Preparation and properties of carbon fiber/ hydroxyapatite‐poly(methyl methacrylate) biocomposites

An in situ polymerization with a later solution co‐mixing approach was used in the preparation of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) matrix composites using hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles and short carbon fibers(C_(f)) as reinforcing materials. The microstructures and fracture surface morphologies of the prepared C_(f)/HA‐PMMA composite were characterized using XRD, FTIR, SEM, EDS, and FESEM analyses. The mechanical properties of the composites were tested by a universal testing machine. Results show that the surface of nitric acid‐oxidized carbon fibers and lecithin‐treated HA contain new functional groups. Uniform dispersion of short fibers and HA nanoparticles in PMMA matrix is successfully achieved and the mechanical properties of the composites are obviously improved. The flexural strength, flexural modulus, and Young's modulus of the composites reach the maximum value 128.12 MPa, 1.150 GPa, and 4.572 GPa when carbon fiber and HA mass fraction arrive to 4% and 8%, respectively. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

Composites based on renewable materials: Polyurethane‐type matrices from forest byproduct/vegetable oil and reinforced with lignocellulosic fibers

The use of products and byproducts from the agro‐industry and forest biorefinery is essential for the development of value‐added and low environmental‐impact materials. In this study, polyurethanes were prepared using sodium lignosulfonate (NaLS) and castor oil (CO) as reagents and were used to prepare composites reinforced with lignocellulosic fibers, namely, curaua and coir fibers (30 wt %, 3 cm length, and randomly oriented). The SEM images of fractured surfaces of the composites revealed excellent adhesion at the fiber/matrix interface of both coir and curaua composites, which probably resulted from the favorable interactions between polar groups, as well as amid low polarity domains that are present in both the matrix and the reinforcements. The composites exhibited different impact/flexural and strength/flexural moduli (NaLS/CO/Curaua = 465 Jm^?1/44 MPa/2 GPa; NaLS/CO/Coir = 180 Jm^?1/25 MPa/1 GPa). The higher tensile strength/aspect ratio of the curaua fibers (485 MPa/259) compared with that of the coir fibers (120 MPa/130) most likely contributes to the enhanced performance of its composite. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013     

Biobased composites prepared by compression molding with a novel thermoset resin from soybean oil and a natural‐fiber reinforcement

Biobased composites were manufactured with a compression‐molding technique. Novel thermoset resins from soybean oil were used as a matrix, and flax fibers were used as reinforcements. The air‐laid fibers were stacked randomly, the woven fabrics were stacked crosswise (0/90°), and impregnation was performed manually. The fiber/resin ratio was 60 : 40. The prepared biobased composites were characterized by impact and flexural testing. Scanning electron microscopy of knife‐cut cross sections of the specimens was also done to investigate the fiber–matrix interface. Thermogravimetric analysis of the composites was carried out to provide indications of thermal stability. Three resins from soybean oil [methacrylated soybean oil, methacrylic anhydride modified soybean oil (MMSO), and acetic anhydride modified soybean oil] were used as matrices. The impact strength of the composites with MMSO resin reinforced with air‐laid flax fibers was 24 kJ/m², whereas that of the MMSO resin reinforced with woven flax fabric was between 24 and 29 kJ/m². The flexural strength of the MMSO resin reinforced with air‐laid flax fibers was between 83 and 118 MPa, and the flexural modulus was between 4 and 6 GPa, whereas the flexural strength of the MMSO resin reinforced with woven fabric was between 90 and 110 MPa, and the flexural modulus was between 4.87 and 6.1 GPa. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

Study on the effect of woven sisal fiber mat on mechanical and viscoelastic properties of petroleum based epoxy and bioresin modified toughened epoxy network

Sisal fiber reinforced biocomposites are developed using both unmodified petrol based epoxy and bioresin modified epoxy as base matrix. Two bioresins, epoxidized soybean oil and epoxy methyl soyate (EMS) are used to modify the epoxy matrix for effective toughening and subsequently two layers of sisal fiber mat are incorporated to improve the mechanical and thermomechanical properties. Higher strength and modulus of the EMS modified epoxy composites reveals good interfacial bonding of matrix with the fibers. Fracture toughness parameters K_IC and G_IC are determined and found to be enhanced significantly. Notched impact strength is found to be higher for unmodified epoxy composite, whereas elongation at break is found to be much higher for modified epoxy blend. Dynamic mechanical analysis shows an improvement in the storage modulus for bioresin toughened composites on the account stiffness imparted by fibers. Loss modulus is found to be higher for EMS modified epoxy composite because of strong fiber–matrix interfacial bonding. Loss tangent curves show a strong influence of bioresin on damping behavior of epoxy composite. Strong fiber–matrix interface is found in modified epoxy composite by scanning electron microscopic analysis. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015 , 132, 42699.     

Failure behavior of resorcinol–formaldehyde latex coated aramid short‐fiber‐reinforced rubber sealing under transverse tension

Composites composed of rubber, sepiolite fiber, and resorcinol–formaldehyde latex‐coated aramid short fibers were prepared. Mechanical and morphological characterizations were carried out. To investigate the effect of interfacial debonding on the failure behavior of short‐fiber‐reinforced rubber composites, a micromechanical representative volume element model for the composites was developed. The cohesive zone model was used to analyze the interfacial failure. We found that computational results were in good agreement with the experimental results when the interfacial fracture energy was 1 J/m² and the interfacial strength was 10 MPa. A parametrical study on the interface and interphase of the composite was conducted. The results indicate that a good interfacial strength and a choice of interphase modulus between 40 and 50 MPa enhanced the ductile behavior and strength of the composite. The ductile properties of the composite also increased with increasing interfacial fracture energy. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015 , 132, 41672.     

Mechanical,thermal, and water absorption properties of melamine–formaldehyde‐treated sisal fiber containing poly(lactic acid) composites

The present study focuses on the melamine–formaldehyde (MF) coating ratio and silanization of PLA/sisal composites. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) was melt blended with short sisal fiber with and without MF resin coating. MF was applied at different weight ratios (sisal:MF = 1:1; 1:3, and 1:5) to coat the untreated or silanized sisal fibers which were incorporated up to 20 parts per hundred resin (phr) amount in PLA. PLA/sisal composites were produced by compression molding. It was found that the sisal:MF coating ratio at 1:1 by weight improved the tensile strength and tensile modulus of the composite with 10 phr sisal by 4% and 57%, respectively, compared to the virgin PLA. The initial and final decomposition (T_i) and (T_f) of PLA with untreated sisal were changed from 330.8 and 367.1 to 336.2 and 370.4 °C, respectively, after MF‐coating (sisal:MF weight ratio = 1:1). This enhancement in thermal stability was attributed to the strong interaction between the MF and sisal fiber. The water absorption of PLA/MF–sisal composites slightly decreased with increasing sisal:MF ratio. This is due to the fact that the MF‐coating substantially reduced the hydrophilic properties of sisal. Moreover, FTIR spectra and SEM images proved that sisal fibers were coated by MF resin successfully. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018 , 135, 45681.     

Influence of fiber orientation and fiber content on properties of sisal‐jute‐glass fiber‐reinforced polyester composites

The incorporation of natural fibers with polymer matrix composites (PMCs) has increasing applications in many fields of engineering due to the growing concerns regarding the environmental impact and energy crisis. The objective of this work is to examine the effect of fiber orientation and fiber content on properties of sisal‐jute‐glass fiber‐reinforced polyester composites. In this experimental study, sisal‐jute‐glass fiber‐reinforced polyester composites are prepared with fiber orientations of 0° and 90° and fiber volume of sisal‐jute‐glass fibers are in the ratio of 40:0:60, 0:40:60, and 20:20:60 respectively, and the experiments were conducted. The results indicated that the hybrid composites had shown better performance and the fiber orientation and fiber content play major role in strength and water absorption properties. The morphological properties, internal structure, cracks, and fiber pull out of the fractured specimen during testing are also investigated by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 42968.     

The influence of chemical surface modification on the performance of sisal‐polyester biocomposites

This article concerns the effectiveness of various types and degrees of surface modification of sisal fibers involving dewaxing, alkali treatment, bleaching cyanoethylation and viny1 grafting in enhancing the mechanical properties, such as tensile, flexural and impact strength, of sisal‐polyester biocomposites. The mechanical properties are optimum at a fiber loading of 30 wt%. Among all modifications, cyanoethylation and alkali treatment result in improved properties of the biocomposites. Cyanoethylated sisal‐polyester composite exhibited maximum tensile strength (84.29 MPa). The alkali treated sisal‐polyester composite exhibited best flexural (153.94 MPa) and impac strength (197.88 J/m), which are, respectively, 21.8% and 20.9% higher than the corresponding mechanical properties of the untreated sisal‐polyester composites. In the case of vinyl grafting, acrylonitrile (AN)‐grafted sisal‐polyester composites show better mechanical properties than methyl‐methacrylate (MMA)‐grafted sisal composites. Scanning electron microscopic studies were carried out to analyze the fiber‐matrix interaction in various surface‐modified sisal‐polyester composites.     

Processing and thermal properties of composites based on recycled PET,sisal fibers,and renewable plasticizers

This investigation focuses on the preparation of bio‐based composites from recycled poly (ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and sisal fibers (3 cm, 15 wt %), via thermopressing process. Plasticizers derived from renewable raw materials are used, namely, glycerol, tributyl citrate (TBC) and castor oil (CO), to decrease the melting point of the recycled PET (T_m ∼ 265°C), which is sufficiently high to initiate the thermal decomposition of the lignocellulosic fiber. All used materials are characterized by thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry, and the composites are also characterized via dynamic mechanical thermal analysis. The storage modulus (30°C) and the tan δ peak values of CT [PET/sisal/TBC] indicate that TBC also acts as a compatibilizing agent at the interface fiber/PET, as well as a plasticizer. To compare different processing methods, rheometry/thermopressing and compression molding are used to prepare the recycled PET/sisal/glycerol/CO composites. These two different methods of processing show no significant influence on the thermal properties of these composites. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014 , 131, 40386.     

A study of the mechanical properties of randomly oriented short banana and sisal hybrid fiber reinforced polyester composites

The mechanical performance of short randomly oriented banana and sisal hybrid fiber reinforced polyester composites was investigated with reference to the relative volume fraction of the two fibers at a constant total fiber loading of 0.40 volume fraction (V_f), keeping banana as the skin material and sisal as the core material. A positive hybrid effect is observed in the flexural strength and flexural modulus of the hybrid composites. The tensile strength of the composites showed a positive hybrid effect when the relative volume fraction of the two fibers was varied, and maximum tensile strength was found to be in the hybrid composite having a ratio of banana and sisal 4 : 1. The impact strength of the composites was increased with increasing volume fraction of sisal. However, a negative hybrid effect is observed when the impact strength of the composites is considered. Keeping the relative volume fraction of the two fibers constant, that is, banana : sisal = 0.32 : 0.08 (i.e., 4 : 1), the fiber loading was optimized and different layering patterns were investigated. The impact strength of the composites was increased with fiber loading. Tensile and flexural properties were found to be better at 0.40 V_f. In the case of different layering patterns, the highest flexural strength was observed for the bilayer composites. Compared to other composites, the tensile properties were slightly higher for the composite having banana as the skin material and sisal as the core material. Scanning electron micrographs of the tensile and impact fracture surfaces of the hybrid composites having volume fraction 0.20 and 0.40 V_f were studied. The experimental tensile strength and tensile modulus of hybrid composites were compared with those of theoretical predictions. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 96: 1699–1709, 2005     

Carbon fiber‐reinforced gelatin composites. I. Preparation and mechanical properties

Composites were made from carbon fibers and gelatin using a solvent‐casting or solution‐impregnation technique. Relationships between the fiber volume fraction (Vf), glycerol (plasticizer) content, gelatin content, fiber form, and mechanical properties (tensile strength and modulus, elongation at break, and shear strength) of the composites were investigated. In long carbon fiber gelatin composite (C_L/Gel), tensile strength, modulus, and shear strength increased steadily with the Vf. In the case of a short carbon fiber gelatin composite (C_S/Gel), an initial improvement in tensile strength and modulus was followed by a reduction, whereas the shear strength improved with the Vf and then reached a constant value. The elongation decreased with the Vf for both composites. It is shown that C_L/Gel had higher values of strength, modulus, and elongation than did C_S/Gel at any Vf level. The effects of glycerol and gelatin contents on the mechanical properties of the composites were found to be much less significant as compared to the Vf. According to scanning electron microscopic observation of the fracture surfaces, the fibers were uniformly distributed in the gelatin matrix, but the interfacial adhesion between the gelatin matrix and the carbon fibers was not very good for both composites. Fiber surface modification would be necessary to further improve the mechanical properties of the two composites. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 75: 987–993, 2000     

Influence of alkali fiber treatment and fiber processing on the mechanical properties of hemp/epoxy composites

Industrial hemp fibers were treated with a 5 wt % NaOH, 2 wt % Na₂SO₃ solution at 120°C for 60 min to remove noncellulosic fiber components. Analysis of fibers by lignin analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), zeta potential, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, wide angle X‐ray diffraction (WAXRD) and differential thermal/thermogravimetric analysis (DTA/TGA), supported that alkali treatment had (i) removed lignin, (ii) separated fibers from their fiber bundles, (iii) exposed cellulose hydroxyl groups, (iv) made the fiber surface cleaner, and (v) enhanced thermal stability of the fibers by increasing cellulose crystallinity through better packing of cellulose chains. Untreated and alkali treated short (random and aligned) and long (aligned) hemp fiber/epoxy composites were produced with fiber contents between 40 and 65 wt %. Although alkali treatment generally improved composite strength, better strength at high fiber contents for long fiber composites was achieved with untreated fiber, which appeared to be due to less fiber/fiber contact between alkali treated fibers. Composites with 65 wt % untreated, long aligned fiber were the strongest with a tensile strength (TS) of 165 MPa, Young's modulus (YM) of 17 GPa, flexural strength of 180 MPa, flexural modulus of 9 GPa, impact energy (IE) of 14.5 kJ/m², and fracture toughness (K_Ic) of 5 MPa m^1/2. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Synthesis and characterization of short Grewia optiva fiber‐based polymer composites

Natural fibers, such as Flax, Sisal, Hibiscus Sabdariffa, and Grewia optiva (GO) possess good reinforcing capability when properly compounded with polymers. These fibers are relatively inexpensive, easily available from renewable resources, and possess favorable values of specific strength and specific modulus. The mechanical performance of natural fiber‐reinforced polymers (FRPs) is often limited owing to a weak fiber‐ matrix interface. In contrast, urea–formaldehyde (UF) resins are well known to have a strong adhesion to most cellulose‐containing materials. This article deals with the synthesis of short G. optiva fiber‐reinforced UF polymer matrix‐based composites. G. optiva fiber‐reinforced UF composites processed by compression molding have been studied by evaluating their mechanical, physical, and chemical properties. This work reveals that mechanical properties such as: tensile strength, compressive strength, flexural strength, and wear resistance of the UF matrix increase up to 30% fiber loading and then decreases for higher loading when fibers are incorporated into the polymer matrix. Morphological and thermal studies of the matrix, fiber, and short FRP composites have also been carried out. The swelling, moisture absorbance, chemical resistance, and water uptake behavior of these composites have also been carried out at different intervals. The results obtained lay emphasis on the utilization of these fibers, as potential reinforcing materials in bio‐based polymer composites. POLYM. COMPOS., 2010. © 2009 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Biodegradable biocomposites from poly(butylene adipate‐co‐terephthalate) and miscanthus: Preparation,compatibilization, and performance evaluation

Miscanthus fibers reinforced biodegradable poly(butylene adipate‐co‐terephthalate) (PBAT) matrix‐based biocomposites were produced by melt processing. The performances of the produced PBAT/miscanthus composites were evaluated by means of mechanical, thermal, and morphological analysis. Compared to neat PBAT, the flexural strength, flexural modulus, storage modulus, and tensile modulus were increased after the addition of miscanthus fibers into the PBAT matrix. These improvements were attributed to the strong reinforcing effect of miscanthus fibers. The polarity difference between the PBAT matrix and the miscanthus fibers leads to weak interaction between the phases in the resulting composites. This weak interaction was evidenced in the impact strength and tensile strength of the uncompatibilized PBAT composites. Therefore, maleic anhydride (MAH)‐grafted PBAT was prepared as compatibilizer by melt free radical grafting reaction. The MAH grafting on the PBAT was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The interfacial bonding between the miscanthus fibers and PBAT was improved with the addition of 5 wt % of MAH‐grafted PBAT (MAH‐g‐PBAT) compatibilizer. The improved interaction between the PBAT and the miscanthus fiber was corroborated with mechanical and morphological properties. The compatibilized PBAT composite with 40 wt % miscanthus fibers exhibited an average heat deflection temperature of 81 °C, notched Izod impact strength of 184 J/m, tensile strength of 19.4 MPa, and flexural strength of 22 MPa. From the scanning electron microscopy analysis, better interaction between the components can be observed in the compatibilized composites, which contribute to enhanced mechanical properties. Overall, the addition of miscanthus fibers into a PBAT matrix showed a significant benefit in terms of economic competitiveness and functional performances. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2017 , 134, 45448.     

The mechanical properties of β‐Si3N4 whiskers‐reinforced dental resin composites

The surface‐modified β‐Si₃N₄ whiskers were used as inorganic fillers to reinforce dental resin (Bis‐GMA/TEGDMA) matrix with filler level ranging from 0 to 60 wt %. The experimental results indicated that the fracture strength of the composites increased from 79.85 to 139.8 MPa with increasing the whiskers loading. The compressive strength, elastic modulus, and rockwell hardness all increased monotonously with increasing filler level. Furthermore, thermal cycling did not decrease the fracture strength of the composites. Moreover, the composites showed good biocompatibility to support MG63 cells adhesion and proliferation. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014 , 131, 40692.     

Effect of the dissolution time on the structure and properties of lyocell‐fabric‐based all‐cellulose composite laminates

In this study, all‐cellulose composite laminates were prepared from lyocell fabric with ionic liquid (1‐butyl‐3‐methyl imidazolium chloride), a conventional hand layup method, and compression molding. Eight layers of lyocell fabric, which were impregnated with ionic liquid, were stacked symmetrically and hot‐pressed under compression molding for various times; this resulted in the partial dissolution of the surface of the lyocell fibers. The dissolved cellulose held the laminas together and resulted in a consolidated laminate. Finally, the prepared laminate was impregnated in water to remove the ionic liquid and to regenerate a matrix phase in situ; this was followed by hot‐press drying. Optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy studies were used to analyze composite structures. With increasing dissolution time, the void content in the composites decreased, and the interlaminar adhesion improved. For LC‐2h and LC‐3h, the highest tensile strength and modulus values obtained were 48.2 MPa and 1.78 GPa, respectively. For LC‐4h, the highest flexural strength and modulus values obtained were 53.96 MPa and 1.2 GPa, respectively. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 43398.