Parametric Effects on Particle Deposition in Abrasive Waterjet Surface Treatments

The abrasive waterjet (AWJ) has primarily been used for net-shape sectioning of engineering materials. In this study an AWJ was adopted for the surface treatment of commercially pure titanium (cpTi) and the contribution of treatment parameters to material removal and the deposition of particles within the substrate were examined. The surface texture and material removal rate were analyzed using conventional techniques whereas the quantity of abrasive particles embedded within the cpTi surfaces was determined using energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDXA). Parametric effects related to particle hardness were distinguished from a comparison of surfaces treated with Aluminum oxide, garnet, and crushed glass abrasives. According to an analysis of variance (ANOVA), treatment responses were found to be primarily dependent on the abrasive size, abrasive hardness, angle of incidence, and jet pressure. The minimum and maximum concentration of particles embedded in the AWJ treated cpTi (in percent surface area covered) was 2.5 and 21.6%, respectively. Particle concentration and mean particle size in the cpTi increased with abrasive size, angle of incidence and jet pressure; the particle concentration reached saturation at an angle of incidence near 80°. Although abrasive hardness was important to the treatment responses, an increase in hardness beyond 800 on the Rosiwal scale resulted in minimal changes in material removal or other features of the process.     

面向再制造低拆解损伤需求的过盈配合界面织构试验研究

过盈配合界面在再制造拆解过程中,易形成划痕、犁沟、黏着堆积等干摩擦损伤,增加修复成本,降低再制造品过盈联结的可靠性。为降低界面拆解损伤,将表面织构引入配合表面,以KMN与40CrNiMo7为材料对象,通过试验研究了圆形凹坑织构对界面拆解损伤的影响。发现因织构的存在,降低了拆解滑动表面上的游离磨粒数量,界面拆解损伤明显减弱。且由承载能力试验发现,该织构能有效提高配合面初始承载能力。在结合面压力50～200 MPa范围内,织构表面的静摩擦因数（μ）较无织构表面提高了0.1左右。但拆解导致的微观划痕破坏了织构周边的环状熔融区,使得μ随拆解次数的增加而递减,经过两次再制造拆解模拟试验后,织构表面的μ值仅高于无织构表面0.01～0.03。     

Surface roughness and material removal rate of lapping process on ceramics

Lapping is a widely used surface finishing process for ceramics. An experimental investigation is conducted into the lapping of alumina, Ni−Zn ferrite and sodium silicate glass using SiC abrasive to study the effect of process parameters, such as abrasive particle size, lapping pressure, and abrasive concentration, on the surface roughness and material removal rate during lapping. A simple model is developed based on the indentation fracture and abrasive particle distribution in the slurry to explain various aspects of the lapping process. The model provides predictions for the surface roughness,R _a andR _t , on the machined surface and rough estimation for the material removal rate during lapping. Comparison of the predictions with the experimental measurements reveals same order of magnitude accuracy.     

Modeling the effects of abrasive size, surface oxidizer concentration and binding energy on chemical mechanical polishing at molecular scale

No conclusive results have been proposed for the influence of the abrasive particle size on the material removal during the chemical mechanical polishing (CMP). In this paper, a mathematical model as a function of abrasive size and surface oxidizer concentration is presented for CMP. The model is proposed on the basis of the molecular-scale removal theory, probability statistics and micro contact mechanics. The influence in relation to the binding energy of the reacted molecules to the substrate is incorporated into the analysis so as to clarify the disputes on the variable experimental trends on particle size. The predicted results show that the removal rate increases sub-linearly with the abrasive particle size and oxidizer concentration. The model predictions are presented in graphical form and show good agreement with the published experimental data. Furthermore, variations of material removal rate with pressure, pad/wafer relative velocity, and wafer surface hardness, as well as pad characteristics are addressed. Results and analysis may lead further understanding of the microscopic material removal mechanism from molecular-scale perspective.     

Effects of grit size on abrasion with coated abrasives

This paper is concerned with identifying the causes of grit size effects in the initial performance of fresh coated abrasives and the deterioration of coated abrasive performance with continued use. Abrasion tests were performed on an instrumented pin-on-cylinder apparatus which had removable segments for observing the coated abrasive surface in the scanning electron microscope (SEM). This allowed for a direct correlation between measurements of coated abrasive performance and SEM observations of coated abrasive morphology. With coated abrasives containing finer grit sizes, numerous adhesive wear particles were found on the coated abrasive surface; this supports the theory that the smaller initial abrasion rate with finer grits is due to abrasive grains making “elastic” contact with the metal specimen at loads insufficient for cutting. With continued use, the rapid deterioration in performance with finer grits was accompanied by a buildup of metal caused by capping of the abrasive grain tips with metal chips and by clogging due to metal chips and adhesive wear particles becoming stuck between the grains. With coarser grits, which were found to experience extensive grain fracture followed by some grain capping and flattening but virtually no clogging, the deterioration in coated abrasive performance was very much less.     

Effects of particle size, polishing pad and contact pressure in free abrasive polishing

The objective of this research is to better understand the mechanisms of material removal in the free abrasive polishing process. Experiments were carried out to understand the effects of particle size, polishing pad and nominal contact pressure on the wear rate and surface roughness of the polished surface. A theoretical model was developed to predict the relationship between the polishing parameters and the wear rate for the case of hard abrasive particles sandwiched between a soft pad and a workpiece (softer than the abrasive particles). Experimental results and theoretical predictions indicate that the wear rate increases with an increase in particle size, hardness of polishing pad and nominal contact pressure, and with a decrease in elastic modulus of the polishing pad. Surface roughness increases with an increase in particle size and hardness of polishing pad, and nominal contact pressure has little effect on the roughness. A dimensionless parameter, wear index which combines all of the preceding parameters, was introduced to give a semi-quantitative prediction for the wear rate in free abrasive polishing. It is also suggested that when polishing hard material, in order to achieve a high materials removal rate and a smooth surface, it is preferable to use diamond as the polishing particles because of their high deformation resistance.     

磨料水射流对金属材料去除力和去除模型的研究

磨料水射流抛光技术作为一种新型技术,广泛应用于表面抛光加工作业中,利用含有细小磨料粒子的抛光液在高压作用下,与工件表面发生冲击、冲蚀而去除材料,以达到抛光目的。采用单颗粒磨料粒子使材料产生塑性变形模型来研究磨料水射流对金属材料的去除力,通过对纯水射流冲击材料的作用力和射流中磨料射流对材料的作用力以及接触应力的理论推导,得出磨料射流中轴线上磨料颗粒去除金属材料最大打击力和最大剪应力以及最大拉应力;通过建立伯努利方程,得到射流压力与金属材料的剪切力和拉应力的直接关系,为工程上磨料水射流抛光喷嘴设计和泵压选择提供了理论参考依据。     

ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING WITH ADDITIONAL CENTRIFUGAL FORCE APPLIED TO THE MEDIA

Abrasive flow machining (AFM) is one of the important non-traditional metal finishing technologies which was introduced during the late 1960s. The process has found applications in a wide range of fields such as aerospace, defence, surgical and tool manufacturing industries. Recently, an effort has been made towards the performance improvement of this process by applying centrifugal force on the abrasive media with the use of a rotating centrifugal force generating (CFG) rod introduced in the workpiece passage. The results have been encouraging. The present paper discusses the results of changing the parameters like shape and rotational speed of CFG rod, extrusion pressure, number of process cycles and abrasive grit size. The results indicate that all the input variables have significant effect on the response parameters, which for the present study were taken as material removal and surface roughness. An analytical model is proposed for the velocity and the angle at which abrasive particles attack the workpiece surface in the process.     

ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING WITH ADDITIONAL CENTRIFUGAL FORCE APPLIED TO THE MEDIA

Abrasive flow machining (AFM) is one of the important non-traditional metal finishing technologies which was introduced during the late 1960s. The process has found applications in a wide range of fields such as aerospace, defence, surgical and tool manufacturing industries. Recently, an effort has been made towards the performance improvement of this process by applying centrifugal force on the abrasive media with the use of a rotating centrifugal force generating (CFG) rod introduced in the workpiece passage. The results have been encouraging. The present paper discusses the results of changing the parameters like shape and rotational speed of CFG rod, extrusion pressure, number of process cycles and abrasive grit size. The results indicate that all the input variables have significant effect on the response parameters, which for the present study were taken as material removal and surface roughness. An analytical model is proposed for the velocity and the angle at which abrasive particles attack the workpiece surface in the process.     

Material removal in abrasive waterjet machining of metals Surface integrity and texture

An experimental study was conducted to determine the influence of material properties on the surface integrity and texture that results from abrasive waterjet (AWJ) machining of metals. A microstructure analysis, microhardness measurements, and profilometry were used in determining the depth of plastic deformation and surface texture that result from material removal. Models now available for dry abrasive erosion were adopted and found useful in understanding the influence of material properties on the hydrodynamic erosion process. It was found that the depth of subsurface plastic deformation is inversely proportional to a metals strength coefficient and extends the greatest depth near jet entry in the initial damage region (IDR). Furthermore, surface skewness in AWJ machining of metals increases with ductility and the corresponding critical strain for lip formation.     

三相射流去毛刺工艺的试验研究

金属切削毛刺是影响精密零件棱边质量及使用性能的主要因素之一。三相射流去毛刺技术是一种柔性工艺方法。三相射流去毛刺的作用过程和机理非常复杂,不仅与射流及作用条件有关,而且与材料的性质及毛刺的形状密切相关。通过正交试验,分析了三相射流工作条件对材料去除量和冲蚀深度的影响,讨论了磨料粒度与加工表面粗糙度的关系。     

Softness consolidation abrasives material removal characteristic oriented to laser hardening surface

The high hardness and irregular characteristics of laser hardening free-form surface bring many problems into the finishing process. A new autofinishing method based on softness consolidation abrasives (SCA), oriented to laser hardening surface, is brought forward. Abrasives are consolidated on the rubber bonnet by the polymer binder, which have micromovement under the elastic restraint to form stress concentration for cutting. By the modification of coefficients and stress, the material removal model is given by the modified Preston equation. According to a series of simulation and practical experiments, the size of abrasive, hardness of abrasive, and hardness of surface were derived as important factors for the material removal. The empirical results showed that the modified Preston equation is propitious to avoid errors for calculation. Compared with free abrasive methods, it demonstrated that SCA can help to improve at least 13.6 % of efficiency.     

Analytical modeling of grinding wheel loading phenomena

Wheel surface condition plays an important role in the grinding operation. Grinding wheel loading, meaning chip accumulation in the space between grains, leads to deteriorating wheel cutting ability and causes excessive force and temperature. This paper presents an analytical model of wheel loading phenomena as a function of cutting parameters, wheel structure, and material properties. The model is based on the adhesion of workpiece material to abrasive grain surface. It is validated by experimental results from grinding nickel-based superalloy with cubic boron nitride vitrified wheel. This model considers wheel specifications including abrasive grains size and the number of cutting edges. Cutting parameters and process temperature are the other determinant factors. On the basis of this model and empirical results, the effects of the various process parameters are presented.     

超微粒金刚石和富勒烯研具创建超平滑表面的研究

制备了超微粒金刚石和富勒烯研磨工具,并分别进行了硅片研磨试验,详细分析了两种材料的研磨特性如表面粗糙度的稳定性、磨料粒度对研磨效果的影响以及研磨材料的显微结构等。试验结果表明,使用0~1/8μm粒度的金刚石研具获得的表面粗糙度值大于使用0~1/4μm粒度金刚石研具的表面粗糙度值,这是因为磨粒被粘结剂覆盖所致。研究结果表明,采用富勒烯研具研磨硅片可获得Ra5nm的超平滑镜面。     

The effect of temperature on the unlubricated sliding wear of 5 CrNiMo steel against 40 MnB steel in the range 400–600°C

5 CrNiMo steel is used traditionally as hot forging die material in China. High temperature wear is a common failure mode of the steel. This paper deals with the sliding wear behavior of the steel in the temperature range 400°C to 600°C. The composition and features of the worn surface were analyzed using SEM, EDS and XRD. The oxidation of 5 CrNiMo steel under sliding wear condition at elevated temperature indicated that the oxide transfer layer formed on the sliding surface consisted of Fe₃O₄ and Fe₂O₃. The wear mechanism changed with the test temperature and the oxide transfer layer played an important part in the change in wear mechanism. At lower temperatures, wear was due to abrasive wear. From 500°C to 550°C, the oxide transfer layer presented a relatively compact morphology and the oxidational wear was the principal wear mechanism resulting in low wear rate at 500°C. When the test temperature was at 600°C, adhesive wear was predominant, and the wear rate increased greatly.     

Abrasive wear behaviour of laser sintered iron–SiC composites

Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) is one of the popular rapid prototyping technologies for producing metal prototypes and tooling of complex geometry in a short time. However, processing of metal matrix composites (MMCs) by laser sintering is still in infant stage. Thermal cracks and de-bonding of reinforcements are reported while processing MMCs by laser sintering process. There are reports on use of metallic-coated ceramic reinforcements to overcome these problems. The present investigation is aimed at using nickel-coated SiC in developing iron composites by DMLS technique and to characterize its abrasive wear behaviour.Microstructure, microhardness, and abrasive wear tests have been carried out on both DMLS iron and its composites sintered at a laser scan speed of 100 mm/s. Abrasion wear tests have been carried out using a pin-on-disc type machine. SiC abrasive papers of grit size 60, 80, and 150 having an average particle size of 268, 192, and 93 μm, respectively, have been used. Load was varied between 5 and 25 N in steps of 5, while the sliding distance and sliding velocity of 540 m and 2.5 m/s, respectively was adopted for all the tests. Optical, scanning electron micrograph and surface roughness observation of worn surfaces have been undertaken.An increase in microhardness and a decrease in density of the laser sintered iron–SiC composites was observed with increase in SiC content. The abrasive wear resistance of composites increases with increased content of SiC in iron matrix. For a given grit size of SiC abrasive paper, at all the loads studied, iron–SiC composites exhibit excellent abrasive wear resistance. Increase in abrasive wear was observed with the increase in abrasive particle size.     

磨粒粒径对蓝宝石研磨均匀性影响的试验研究

通过蓝宝石衬底的单面研磨试验研究,分析了W14和W3.5的B₄C磨粒研磨后蓝宝石表面的微观形貌和宏观形貌,W14的B₄C磨粒加工后蓝宝石表面微观裂纹密集且交错分布,体现了以滚轧和挤压为主的材料脆性去除作用,相同条件下,W3.5的B₄C磨粒加工的蓝宝石表面划痕均匀,表面无微观裂纹,实现了以切削为主的材料延性去除形式。测试分析结果表明：磨粒粒径的选择对蓝宝石的研磨表面状态具有重要影响,其选择准则除考虑要达到的粗糙度等级之外,还必须同时考虑与研磨盘的嵌入作用及其对加工表面状态的影响;W3.5的B₄C磨粒研磨加工后的蓝宝石表面宏观和微观均匀性良好,表面粗糙度、平面度等符合抛光前道工序的要求。     

A Physics-Based Predictive Model for Number of Contact Grains and Grain Depth of Cut in Honing

Honing is a material removal process widely used in manufacturing of engine cylinders, compressors, valves, bearings, and hydraulic cylinders. The surface topography generated by honing has a profound effect on the tribological performance of the honed surface, since the cross-hatch pattern on the workpiece surface can be used to retain oil or grease to ensure proper lubrication and minimize wear. The number of contact grains and the grain depth of cut are important indicators of interactions between the tool and workpiece in the honing process. They are helpful in understanding chip formation, tool wear, and optimization of the cross-hatch pattern to improve the tribological performance of the honed surface. This article presents a physics-based model for predicting the number of contact grains and the grain depth of cut in honing. It describes the model development and studies the influences of abrasive grain size, abrasive concentration, nominal contact area, yield strength of workpiece material, and static load on the number of contact grains and the maximum grain depth of cut. Results from pilot experiments are used to verify the model.     

超声振动磨削陶瓷材料高效去除机理研究

基于压痕断裂力学,在工件横向施振超声振动平面磨削单颗磨粒受力分析基础上,建立了材料去除率综合数学模型;并就超声振动和普通磨削进行了对比试验研究。研究结果表明超声振动磨削陶瓷材料去除率与被加工材料的种类、磨削深度、砂轮磨粒粒度、超声振动的振幅以及磨削条件有着密切关系。同样磨削条件下,超声振动磨削陶瓷材料去除率是普通磨削的1.7~3.2倍,与理论模型相符合。试验结果表明超声振动磨削可以获得良好的加工表面,工件横向施振超声振动磨削是一种精密、高效加工新工艺。