Effects of surface forces on pure squeeze thin film EHL motion of circular contacts

The pure squeeze thin film elastohydrodynamic lubrication (thin film EHL) motion of circular contacts with effects of surface forces taken into account is explored under constant load conditions. The difference between thin film EHL model and EHL model is apparent as the film thickness is thinner than 5 nm. The oscillation phenomena in pressure and film thickness come mainly from the action of solvation forces. The effects of surface forces become significant as the film thickness becomes thinner. Moreover, the viscosity is oscillatory due to its dependency on the hydrodynamic pressure which is affected by surface forces.     

镀金属膜长周期光纤光栅的传感特性

本文基于耦合模理论, 建立了严格的四层金属膜理论模型, 探讨了镀金属膜长周期光纤光栅(Long-period fiber grating, LPFG)的温度、 应变及折射率特性, 以及镀膜参数对镀金属膜长周期光纤光栅光谱特性的影响.仿真结果表明, 长周期光纤光栅表面最优的金属膜厚度将引起表现等离子共振(Surface-plasmon resonance, SPR)特性, 这一特性将使得LPFG 对稳定及折射率都有较高的敏感性, 而对应变影响较小. 理论分析表明, 银膜厚度在0.8-1.2 nm 范围内时, 折射率敏感度达到最大值为42.402 6, 敏感度增加4.5%. 仿真结果为镀膜长周期光纤光栅的设计及参数优化提供了理论指导.     

Substrate surface energy effects on a liquid lubricant film at nanometre scalesubstrate surface energy effects on a liquid lubricant film at nanometre scale

In this paper is discussed the effect of the physical characteristics of substrate surfaces on the lubrication properties of thin films at nanometre scale. Different coatings with different surface energies have been formed on the surface of a steel ball by means of plasma assisted sedimentation (PAS). The ball was put in a pure rolling system in point contact, where the lubricant film is measured by relative optical interference intensity (ROII). Experimental results show that the film thickness is closely related to the substrate surface energy when the film is in the nanometre scale, and that the combined surface roughness in the contact region is closely related to the liquid lubricant film thickness and the contact pressure. The thinner the film and the higher the contact pressure, the smaller will be the combined surface roughness. Lastly, the relationship between critical film thickness and its influencing factors is discussed.     

Molecular dynamics characterization of thin film viscosity for EHL simulation

Molecular simulations were used to characterize changes in lubricant viscosity that may occur during thin film elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL). Molecular dynamics simulations were performed at variable wall speed and film thickness such that the effects of both parameters could be evaluated. Using this approach it was found that the viscosity of thin films under large shear is subject to both shear thinning and oscillation with film thickness. A composite model was developed that incorporated both effects. The expected impact that this model might have on an EHL interface was evaluated using a continuum simulation. An overall decrease in viscosity with some oscillation near the interface edges was predicted due to the molecularly modeled thin film effects.     

A unified shear-thinning treatment of both film thickness and traction in EHD

A conclusive demonstration has been provided that the nature of the shear-thinning, that affects both film thickness and traction in EHL contacts, follows the ordinary power-law rule that has been described by many empirical models of which Carreau is but one example. This was accomplished by accurate measurements in viscometers of the shear response of a PAO that possesses a very low critical stress for shear-thinning and accurate measurements in-contact of film thickness and traction under conditions which accentuate the shear-thinning effect. The in-contact central film thickness and traction were entirely predictable from the rheological properties obtained from viscometers using simple calculations. These data should be invaluable to researchers endeavoring to accurately simulate Hertz zone behavior since the shear-thinning rheology is extensively characterized and accurate in-contact data are available to test. In addition, a new model has been introduced that may be useful for the rheological characterization of mixtures.     

Transient elastohydrodynamic lubrication film thickness in sliding and rolling line contacts

The contact behavior between cam and follower is greatly influenced by the kinematics and dynamics of the whole valve train system. This is the reason that both shape and thickness of the fluid film in the contact gap are mainly determined by applied loads and relative contact speeds as well as the curvatures of contacting elements. Most of the studies about lubricant film behavior between cam and follower have been performed without a consideration of transient effects in the contact gap. For the computational difficulties of transient effects, most contact conditions such as relative contacting speeds have been regarded as quasi-steady state during the whole operating cycle. In this work, in order to obtain stable convergence, a multigrid multi-level method is used for the computation of load capacity in the lubricant film. Nonlinear valve spring dynamics are also considered in the same way as Hanachi’s. From the computational results, transient EHL film thicknesses under the conditions of different contact geometries are computed for a pushrod type valve train system during an engine cycle. Several results show the squeeze film effect, which is generally not found with conventional EHL computations of the cam and follower contact. The results are also compared with those by the Dowson-Hamrock (D-H) formula, which does not consider the dynamic film effect. Without the dynamic film effect as in D-H’s formula, the minimum film thickness is highly dependent on the entraining lubricant velocity, whereas the minimum film thickness including the squeeze film effect is dependent on the applied load.     

Lubricant film formation properties of alkyl imidazolium tetrafluoroborate and hexafluorophosphate ionic liquids

The film thickness and friction properties of four imidazolium ionic liquids (1-butyl-3-methyl tetrafluoroborate and hexafluorophosphate and 1-hexyl-3-methyl tetrafluoroborate and hexafluorophosphate) were measured for mixed rolling-sliding conditions and the results compared to an additised mineral oil. Film thickness results showed that three of the fluids demonstrated classical EHL behaviour; however, the 1-butyl-3-methyl fluids gave anomalously thick, time-dependent films at low speeds (<0.3 m/s). Post-test inspection of the specimens revealed a loosely bound brown film deposited in the track. Film formation appeared to originate in the bulk fluid where brown “fibrous” agglomerations were observed. These were flocculated by shear flow and deposited in the track after passing through the contact. Overall the RTIL friction coefficients were less than the mineral oil for all conditions investigated. In the absence of thick film formation all RTILs gave a similar friction coefficient of 0.03 in the boundary regime, which is thought to be due to electrical double layer formation. In the fluid film regime traction was determined by the nature of the anion.     

On thin film lubrication

Various phenomena are revealed under EHL and micro-EHL conditions, such as the properties of the lubricant under high pressure, traction, and the load-bearing capacity of the lubricant film, and are discussed in the present paper. A new lubrication regime, thin film lubrication, has been discussed. The theoretical and practical significance of research on thin film lubrication is elaborated. Finally, the characteristics describing thin film lubrication and its main research directions are suggested.     

弹流润滑条件下齿轮传动润滑油膜厚度影响参数研究

基于弹性流体动力润滑理论,利用Dowson-Higginson公式推导出渐开线直齿轮基本参数与最小油膜厚度计算关系式,并通过MATLAB软件编程绘制出相应的关系曲线图,分析了传动比、模数、重合度、齿宽系数等齿轮传动参数对齿轮副润滑油膜厚度的影响,从而揭示了齿轮传动参数与齿轮副润滑性能之间的关系,为弹流润滑条件下齿轮传动的设计提供了理论依据.     

Quantitative elastohydrodynamic film thickness of mechanically degraded oil

The low-shear viscosities of new oil and used (degraded) oil were measured to moderately high pressure. Shear-thinning flow curves were generated over a range of shear stress important to EHL film forming. Mechanical shear degradation only affected the viscosity at low shear stress while the viscosity at high stress remained unchanged. A recently published film thickness equation for double-Newtonian shear-thinning, employing the measured rheology, predicts the surprising result that thickness of the EHL film was not changed by the degradation although the low-shear viscosities were reduced substantially. Colorimetric measurements of the film thicknesses validate the predictions. Concern over the permanent loss in viscosity due to degradation may be misplaced when addressing EHL films.     

Experimental results and analytical film thickness predictions in EHD rolling point contacts

In this work, we consider several types of lubricants—including non-Newtonian fluids—that were studied in EHD pure rolling point contacts under various operating conditions, leading us to explore a wide range of dimensionless parameters. The experimental results are compared with predictions given by the usual analytical EHL relationships and by more recently developed models. This broad comparison conducted with particular emphasis on minimum film thickness (h_m) showed a fair agreement between experimental data and a few predictions including some obtained from extended models. Commonly used elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) models did not systematically give accurate h_m estimation, whereas minimum film thickness not only is a yield value but also serves as a key parameter in estimating lubrication regimes.     

Monochromatic image analysis of elastohydrodynamic lubrication film thickness by fringe intensity computation

Point contact film thickness in elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) is analyzed by image processing method for the images from an optical interferometer with monochromatic incident light. Interference between the reflected lights both on half mirrorCr coating of glass disk and on super finished ball makes circular fringes depending on the contact conditions such as sliding velocity, applied load, viscosity-pressure characteristics and viscosity of lubricant under ambient pressure. In this situation the film thickness is regarded as the difference of optical paths between those reflected lights, which make dark and bright fringes with monochromatic incident light. The film thickness is computed by numbering the dark and bright fringe orders and the intensity (gray scale image) in each fringe regime is mapped to the corresponding film thickness. In this work, we developed a measuring technique for EHL film thickness by dividing the image patterns into two typical types under the condition of monochromatic incident light. During the image processing, the captured image is converted into digitally formatted data over the contact area without any loss of the image information of interferogram and it is also interpreted with consistency regardless of the observer’ s experimental experience. It is expected that the developed image processing method will provide a valuable basis to develop the image processing technique for color fringes, which is generally used for the measurement of relatively thin films in higher resolution.     

A critical evaluation of film thickness‐derived pressure–viscosity coefficients

A single parameter, the pressure–viscosity coefficient, α, quantifies the pressure dependence of the viscosity of the liquid in elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL). Most published values of α have not been obtained from measurements of viscosity as a function of pressure. Rather, these effective pressure–viscosity coefficients have been derived from the measurement of the EHL film thickness, a more difficult procedure. In this article, five well‐characterized liquids that should be Newtonian in the EHL inlet are identified for which film‐derived coefficients have been reported. These coefficients are compared with coefficients derived from published viscosity correlations and new viscosity measurements. The film‐derived coefficients are found to not be an accurate representation of the piezoviscous response. The procedure of deriving a pressure–viscosity coefficient from a film thickness measurement does not offer an alternative to the simpler and easier viscometer measurement. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Thin film thickness measurements in two phase annular flows using ultrasonic pulse echo techniques

The electric power generation and oil/gas production industries have a strong interest in the physical characterization of conducting and non-conducting liquid films that are formed during the flow of liquids in pipes. Conducting and non-conducting liquid films do not lend themselves to the same characterization techniques due to the different requirements originating from their electrical properties. Techniques based on the use of ultrasound are extremely attractive for that purpose as they do not depend on the electrical properties of the liquid and are also non-invasive. This paper presents the application of ultrasonic techniques for measuring the thickness of wavy thin liquid films (<6 mm) in vertical pipes. Initial benchtop experiments were performed, and different signal processing methods were implemented in order to identify the most suitable depending on the film thickness. For a film thickness >0.5 mm a time of flight method was utilized whereas for a film thicknesses <0.5 mm a frequency method and time domain method were utilized. These methods were validated using a theoretical volume measurement on a static system. The studied methods were then tested on downward and upward vertical flow experimental rigs with pipe diameters of 127 mm and 34.5 mm respectively. The results of the experiments using ultrasonic methods showed good agreement with the measurements obtained using a multi pin film sensor and a concentric conductance probe, highlighting the potential that ultrasound offers in thin film measurements.     

变速点、线接触副弹流润滑油膜的观测

应用光干涉方法,在自制的光弹流试验机上分别对纯滚动条件下点接触和线接触形成的弹流油膜进行变卷吸速度实验,并进行油膜测量。结果表明,在卷吸速度为零时都有封油现象的出现。随着卷吸速度的增加,油膜厚度增加,点接触形成的弹流油膜具有典型的马蹄形特征,线接触形成的弹流油膜在接触区端部有类似点接触的马蹄形收缩。要达到同样的最大赫兹接触压力,施加在线接触实验上的载荷要比施加在点接触实验上的载荷大40倍左右。     

Assessment of adhesion between thin film and silicon based on a scratch test

Thin film coatings are commonly utilized to prevent wear, modify surface properties, and manipulate the frictional behavior of various mechanical systems. The behavior of a coating has a direct effect on the life as well as performance of the system. However, the coating itself is subject to damage, and the quality of the coating is related to the adhesion characteristics between the coating and the substrate. Therefore, a quantitative assessment of the adhesion properties of thin film is important to guarantee the reliability of not only the thin film but also the mechanical system. In this study, ramp loading scratch tests were performed to assess the adhesion characteristics of Ag and ZnO thin films coated on a silicon wafer. Silver thin film, deposited by sputtering, and ZnO thin film, fabricated by a sol-gel method, were used as scratch specimens. Scratch tests using a diamond tip were performed with a continuously increasing normal force. During the scratch test, the normal and frictional forces were monitored to assess the integrity of the film. The Benjamin and Weaver model commonly used for obtaining the horizontal force during the scratching of films coated on a substrate showed large discrepancies with the experimental results. In this work, the model was modified with a plowing term to minimize the difference between the experimental and theoretical results. Using the modified model, the experimental results could be predicted with an accuracy of about 10%.     

Thermal point contact EHL analysis of rolling/sliding contacts with experimental comparison showing anomalous film shapes

The paper presents an experimental and numerical investigation of non-conformal lubricated contacts in which anomalous film shapes occur. The experiments were concerned with the contact between a steel ball and the plane surface of a glass disc at various slide-roll ratios. A paraffin base mineral oil was used as a lubricant and friction coefficients and film thicknesses were measured. It was found that for slide-roll ratios with the disk moving faster anomalous elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) films were obtained characterized by a “dimple” in the central region of the contact. Numerical thermal-elastohydrodynamic analyses were carried out to simulate both film thickness and friction corresponding to the experimental conditions using Newtonian and Ree-Eyring rheological models. Initial results from this study suggest that neither of these lubricant models predict the correct detailed film shape and the experimental friction at the same time. An alternative lubricant model including both thermal and limiting shear stress effects (wall slippage) is currently under development.     

Microscopic study of thin film lubrication and its contributions to macroscopic tribology

This review article summarizes recent progress in investigation of nano‐rheology and thin film lubrication, as well as their contributions to conventional tribology. As the thickness of a lubricating film becomes comparable to molecular dimensions, a lubricant confined between solid walls undergoes a dramatic transition in its rheological properties and physical state, including the formation of ordered structure, enhanced viscosity and slow relaxation, glass transition or solidification, and consequent stick‐slip motion. As a result, it is recognized that there is special regime between EHL and boundary lubrication, identified as thin film lubrication, where lubricant flow and hydrodynamics are still in action but behave differently from expectations of the classical theory. Generalized theories of thin film lubrication are under development. Microscopic studies of thin film lubrication provide a solid theoretical basis to the development of high‐tech and micro devices, the understanding of lubrication failure, the generalization of classical lubrication theory, and friction control and interface design. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Optimum film thickness of thin metallic coatings on silicon substrates for low load sliding applications

The frictional behaviour of thin metallic films on silicon substrates sliding against 52100 steel balls is presented. The motivation of this work is to identify an optimum film thickness that will result in low friction under relatively low loads for various metallic films. Dry sliding friction experiments on silicon substrates with soft metallic coatings (silver, copper, tin and zinc) of various thickness (1–2000 nm) were conducted using a reciprocating pin-on-flat type apparatus under a controlled environment. A thermal vapour deposition technique was used to produce pure and smooth coatings. The morphology of the films was examined using an atomic force microscope, a non-contact optical profilometer and a scanning electron microscope. Following the sliding tests, the sliding tracks were examined by various surface characterization techniques and tools. The results indicate that the frictional characteristics of silicon are improved by coating the surface with a thin metallic film, and furthermore, an optimum film thickness can be identified for silver, copper and zinc coatings. In most cases ploughing marks could be found on the film which suggests that plastic deformation of the film is the dominant mode by which frictional energy dissipation occurred. Based on this observation, the frictional behaviour of thin metallic coatings under low loads is discussed and friction coefficients are correlated with an energy based friction model.     

Film thickness in point contacts under generalized Newtonian EHL conditions: Numerical and experimental analysis

The current paper contributes to the understanding of the behaviour of a smooth point EHL contact with a generalized Newtonian lubricant under pure rolling. The film thickness distribution was computed using a numerical simulation with measured rheological lubricant properties. The numerical predictions, obtained solving the generalized Reynolds equation were compared with film thicknesses measured in an optical ball-on-disc device. The numerical results correctly predict the absolute film thickness and the film thickness increase with rolling speed.