Telecom wavelength single photon sources

Single photon sources are key components for quantum technologies such as quantum communication, computing and metrology. A key challenge towards the realization of global quantum networks are transmission losses in optical fibers. Therefore, single photon sources are required to emit at the low-loss telecom wavelength bands. However, an ideal telecom wavelength single photon source has yet to be discovered. Here, we review the recent progress in realizing such sources. We start with single photon emission based on atomic ensembles and spontaneous parametric down conversion, and then focus on solid-state emitters including semiconductor quantum dots, defects in silicon carbide and carbon nanotubes. In conclusion, some state-of-the-art applications are highlighted.     

用于1 550 nm光子检测的InGaAs/InP 单光子雪崩二极管的温度相关性

在越来越多的光子计数应用中,用于近红外光波长领域的单光子探测器受到广泛关注。例如在量子信息处理、量子通信、3D激光测距（LiDAR）、时间分辨光谱等光子计数应用领域。文中设计并展示了用于探测1 550 nm波长光子的InGaAs/InP单光子雪崩二极管（SPAD）。这种SPAD 采用分离吸收、过渡、电荷和倍增区域结构 (SAGCM),在盖革模下工作时具有单光子灵敏度。SPAD的特性包括随温度范围223~293 K变化的击穿电压、暗计数率、单光子检测效率和后脉冲概率。25 μm 直径的 SPAD 显示出一定的温度相关性,击穿电压随温度的变化率约为100 mV/K。当SPAD在盖革模式下温度为223 K工作时,在暗计数率为4.1 kHz,后脉冲概率为3.29%的基础上,对1 550 nm光子实现了21%的单光子探测效率。文中还分析和讨论了SPAD温度相关性的单光子探测效率、暗计数率和后脉冲概率的来源和物理机制。这些机制分析、讨论和计算可以为SPAD的设计和制备提供更多的理论支持和依据。     

P型掺杂区工艺对Si基Pinned型光电二极管量子效率的影响

为了更全面、系统地分析Si基Pinned型光电二极管(PPD,pinned photodiode)量子效率的工艺敏感特性,基于考虑表面(SRH,shockley-read -hall)复合率模型的时域有限差分数值模拟方法,对不同P⁺型表面层和P型外延(EPI,e pi taxial)层工艺条件下PPD可见光谱量子效率的变化特征及物理机制进行了研究。结果表明 ,P⁺型表面层离子束注入剂量和注入能量的增加分别引起非平衡载流子SRH复合率升高和 PPD势垒区顶部下移,均可导致低于500nm波段量子效率的衰减,而 后者进一步引起的势垒区纵向宽度缩 减使该影响可持续至650nm波段;P型EPI掺杂浓度增加引起PPD势垒 区底部上移,导致500～750nm 波段量子效率的衰减;P型EPI厚度增加引起衬底强SRH复合区光电荷比重降低,导致高于700 nm波段量 子效率得到提升并趋向饱和。通过分析发现,Si基材料中光子吸收深度对波长的强依赖关系 是导致两种P型 掺杂区工艺条件对量子效率存在波段差异性影响的根本原因。     

非相干变频转换实现室温下红外单光子源

纳米金刚石中的NV-center(Nitrogen-Vacancy center)是目前室温下具有高发射率和稳定性的可见光波段单光子源,而如何实现及优化红外单光子源则是未来实现量子信息和量子通信应用的一大挑战.介绍了一种近期提出的实现红外单光子源的新型机制.该方法以金刚石中的NV-center作为可见光波段的单光子源,利用非相干变频转换实现室温下近红外波段稳定、无闪烁的单光子源.具体的实施方案为在中空芯光子晶体光纤中选择性地填充含有量子点的溶液,以可见光波段的单光子源作为激励源,选择合适的量子点即可得到红外波段的单光子源.中空芯光子晶体光纤保证了较高的单光子吸收效率以及荧光收集效率.该方案的实施在理论上可以达到26%的转换效率,而初步的实验得到了0.1%的转换效率.进一步分析了一些影响转换效率的因素,并提出了一些解决方案.     

A single-photon counter for long-haul telecom

Quite a few groups have turned their attention to using commercially available InGaAs/InP APDs, originally developed for optical communication applications, as SPADs for photon counting at 1300 nm and 1550 nm. This research has turned out to be quite fruitful, and there are many applications emerging in optical metrology (optical time-domain reflectometry) in eye-safe range finding and in future quantum technologies, where databits are encoded on individual photons. This article describes the status of these commercially available InGaAs/InP APDs used as single-photon counters in the telecom wavelength region of 1550 nm     

多碱光电阴极光电发射过程研究

论述了多碱阴极及光致荧光的特点,测量了多碱阴极在514.5 nm和785 nm波长激光激发条件下的荧光谱。结果表明,多碱阴极在514.5 nm波长激光激发条件下,荧光峰值强度比785 nm波长激光激发条件下荧光峰值强度强40倍,说明514.5nm波长的电子跃迁几率低于785nm波长的电子跃迁几率,同时514.5 nm波长激光激发的荧光峰值波长为860 nm,而785 nm波长激光激发的荧光峰值波长为870 nm,514.5 nm波长激光激发的荧光峰值波长与激发光波长的偏移为345 nm,而785 nm波长激光激发的荧光峰值波长与激发光波长的偏移仅为85 nm,说明514.5 nm波长激发的跃迁电子的能量损失远大于785nm波长激发的跃迁电子的能量损失。原因是短波光子的能量较高,所激发的跃迁电子来源于较深能级,因此能量损失较大。多碱阴极的量子效率在2.11 eV达到最大,当光子的能量大于2.11 eV以后,由于跃迁电子的能量损失随光子能量的增加而增加,因此多碱阴极的量子效率随光子能量的增加而减小。多碱阴极的量子效率与电子跃迁几率成正比,但实测的量子效率曲线与电子跃迁几率曲线的峰值波长不一致,原因是随着光子能量的增加,跃迁电子的能级也增加,当电子跃迁的几率达到最大并下降时,尽管跃迁电子的几率减小,但因电子跃迁的能级还在提高,因此量子效率仍在增加。只有当跃迁几率的因素超过能级的因素以后,量子效率才随光子能量的增加而减小,因此造成量子效率曲线的峰值波长与跃迁几率的峰值波长不一致。通过多碱阴极光致荧光谱的分析,揭示了多碱阴极电子跃迁过程中的客观规律,解释了多碱阴极量子效率在达到最大值之后,量子效率随光子能量增加而减小以及多碱阴极量子效率存在短波限的原因。     

HgCdTe Quantum Detection: from Long-Wave IR down to UV

A few years ago, visible detection was demonstrated using advanced substrate thinning processes on flip-chip hybridized HgCdTe focal-plane arrays, in both French and US laboratories. Constant quantum efficiency was demonstrated at LETI-Sofradir from the short-wave infrared (IR) (2.5 μm cut-off) down to the visible range in 2006, validating complete CdZnTe substrate removal. This paper presents and discusses HgCdTe photodiode spectral response characterization, focusing on the short-wavelength part of the spectrum. We confirm the extended sensitivity of middle- and long-wave diodes: constant quantum efficiency has been observed from 10 μm down to 230 nm in the ultraviolet (UV). Such a unique property may be useful for very large-bandwidth spectrometers requiring monolithic detectors. Avalanche gain of middle-wave avalanche photodiodes has also been investigated in both the visible and the UV range. We demonstrate here that the avalanche gain remains constant while keeping a very low excess noise factor. This result opens the way to low-flux applications in this wavelength range.     

Strain tunable quantum dot based non-classical photon sources

Semiconductor quantum dots are leading candidates for the on-demand generation of single photons and entangled photon pairs.High photon quality and indistinguishability of photons from different sources are critical for quantum information applications.The inability to grow perfectly identical quantum dots with ideal optical properties necessitates the application of post-growth tuning techniques via e.g.temperature,electric,magnetic or strain fields.In this review,we summarize the state-of-the-art and highlight the advantages of strain tunable non-classical photon sources based on epitaxial quantum dots.Using piezoelectric crystals like PMN-PT,the wavelength of single photons and entangled photon pairs emitted by InGaAs/GaAs quantum dots can be tuned reversibly.Combining with quantum light-emitting diodes simultaneously allows for electrical triggering and the tuning of wavelength or exciton fine structure.Emission from light hole exciton can be tuned,and quantum dot containing nanostructure such as nanowires have been piezo-integrated.To ensure the indistinguishability of photons from distant emitters,the wavelength drift caused by piezo creep can be compensated by frequency feedback,which is verified by two-photon interference with photons from two stabilized sources.Therefore,strain tuning proves to be a flexible and reliable tool for the development of scalable quantum dots-based non-classical photon sources.     

The photon as a fundamental phenomenon†

The particle aspect of the photon is reformulated in order to cater to the mechanistic perceptiveness of human comprehension. The ensuing arguments endeavour to arrive at a quantized field model which incorporates the basic concepts of classical electrodynamics.

The microphysical field configuration of the photon may be derived from the Poynting vector of energy flux. This suggests that the quantum of action is on elementary electromagnetic field entity with an intrinsic spin of ½h.

A dimensional analysis indicates that this spin of the elementary field configuration may acquire one or more additional unit actions of ½h. Such impositions result in the quantity h, and a commensurable rotational rate, ω = 2πv, of the original field entity, whereupon it must transform its nature from action, W, into energy, E. The immediate conceptual consequence of the derived model is the identity of the field structures of the neutrino and the photon.     

Photon counting in the 1540-nm wavelength region with a germaniumavalanche photodiode

Unexpected results have been obtained in measurements of dark-count rate and quantum efficiency (QE) for a germanium avalanche photodiode operating in the photon counting regime at 1540-nm wavelength. A liquid-nitrogen cooled Ge single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) exhibited both a low dark-count rate and a QE of the order of 1%, which is at least one order of magnitude higher than the values reported for such a device. The data offer hope for future diodes that might match such performance. Reasons for the device's extraordinarily good performance, a performance level not matched by the other 17 APDs in the collection investigated, are not understood. Such high quantum efficiency germanium devices could be used in one-bit-per-photon communication systems operating in the 1540-nm telecommunications window     

Extremely Efficient White Organic Light‐Emitting Diodes for General Lighting

Highly power‐efficient white organic light‐emitting diodes (OLEDs) are still challenging to make for applications in high‐quality displays and general lighting due to optical confinement and energy loss during electron‐photon conversion. Here, an efficient white OLED structure is shown that combines deterministic aperiodic nanostructures for broadband quasi‐omnidirectional light extraction and a multilayer energy cascade structure for energy‐efficient photon generation. The external quantum efficiency and power efficiency are raised to 54.6% and 123.4 lm W^?1 at 1000 cd m^?2. An extremely small roll‐off in efficiency at high luminance is also obtained, yielding a striking value of 106.5 lm W^?1 at 5000 cd m^?2. In addition to a substantial increase in efficiency, this device structure simultaneously offers the superiority of angular color stability over the visible wavelength range compared to conventional OLEDs. It is anticipated that these findings could open up new opportunities to promote white OLEDs for commercial applications.     

单光子探测器研究现状与发展

单光子探测器的研制是量子光学和量子信息领域的一个重要研究课题。单光子探测器突破了传统探测器只针对振幅进行采样的局限,同时对光波或者光子的偏振、波矢、位相等特性进行探测,具有可保持测量信号完整性、理论量子效率高、工作电压低、探测灵敏度高等优点,同时具有室温单光子探测的潜力。为了深入了解单光子探测器的研究现状和发展前景,本文介绍了单光子探测器的工作机理,总结对比了光电倍增管、雪崩光电二极管等传统单光子探测器以及基于新型二维材料的雪崩光电二极管、超导纳米线单光子探测器等新型单光子光电探测器的优势与不足,并对其发展前景进行了展望。此外还介绍了单光子探测器在量子通信、激光测距和成像等领域的应用。     

Metalorganic vapor phase epitaxial growth of all-AlGaAs visible (∼700 nm) vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers on misoriented substrates

We present a study on the growth of visible (∼700 nm) vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy. The structure was based on AlGaAs for both the quantum well active region and the distributed Bragg reflectors. Photoluminescence intensity from AlGaAs quantum wells was optimized vs the substrate misorientations from the (100) surface. The doping efficiency for n-type by Si and p-type by C was studied as a function of the substrate misorientation and the growth temperature. High-quality VCSEL materials were grown on (311)A substrates. The structure was processed by selective oxidation, and high-performance VCSELs emitting at ∼700 nm were achieved in a continuous-wave mode at room temperature.     

可见增强的32×32元平面型InGaAs/InP面阵探测器

为了实现In Ga As探测器响应波段向可见增强,在传统的外延材料中加入一层In Ga As腐蚀阻挡层,制备了32×32元平面型In Ga As面阵探测器,采用机械抛光和化学湿法腐蚀相结合的方法,去除了In P衬底.结果表明,探测器的响应波段为0.5~1.7μm,室温下在波长为500 nm处的量子效率约为16%,850 nm处量子效率约为54%,1 550 nm处量子效率约为91%.暗电流大小与衬底减薄之前基本保持一致.理论分析了材料参数对器件量子效率的影响,为进一步优化可见波段探测器的量子效率提供了依据.     

基于量子阱带间跃迁的红外探测器原型器件

近期,实验发现PN结中局域载流子具有极高提取效率,并导致吸收系数的大幅度增加。本文报道基于上述现象的新型量子阱带间跃迁红外探测器原型器件的性能。利用含有InGaAs/GaAs多量子阱的PIN二极管,在无表面减反射膜的实验条件下,利用仅100nm的有效吸收厚度,实现了31%的外量子效率。基于该数值推算得到,量子阱的光吸收系数达3.7×104 cm-1,该数值高于传统透射实验测量结果一个数量级。上述实验结果指出,利用量子阱带间跃迁工作机制,有望实现新颖的器件结构设计和提高现有器件性能。     

Photoluminescent Porous Si/SiO2 Core/Shell Nanoparticles Prepared by Borate Oxidation

A systematic study on the activation of photoluminescence from luminescent porous silicon nanoparticles (LPSiNPs) by oxidation in aqueous media containing sodium tetraborate (borax) is presented. The treatment promotes surface oxidation of the porous silicon skeleton and consequently generates an electronically passivated material. Photoluminescence is ascribed to quantum confinement effects and to defects localized at the Si‐SiO₂ interface, and the strong photoluminescence is attributed to passivation of nonradiative surface defects. The oxidation treatment (carried out at 20 °C) generates a gradual blue shift of the photoluminescence peak wavelength (from 800 nm to 630 nm), while the bandwidth remains relatively constant (≈210 nm). During the treatment period, the external quantum yield (λ_ex = 365 nm) of photoluminescence increases to a maximum value of 23% after 200 min, and then it decreases at longer treatment times. The decrease in photoluminescence intensity at longer times is attributed to degradation and dissolution of the nanoparticles, which is inhibited at higher nanoparticle concentrations or by addition of free silicic acid.     

Stable single photon sources in the near C-band range above 400 K

The intrinsic characteristics of single photons became critical issues since the early development of quantum mechanics. Nowadays, acting as flying qubits, single photons are shown to play important roles in the quantum key distribution and quantum networks. Many different single photon sources (SPSs) have been developed. Point defects in silicon carbide (SiC) have been shown to be promising SPS candidates in the telecom range. In this work, we demonstrate a stable SPS in an epitaxial 3CSiC with the wavelength in the near C-band range, which is very suitable for fiber communications. The observed SPSs show high single photon purity and stable fluorescence at even above 400 K. The lifetimes of the SPSs are found to be almost linearly decreased with the increase of temperature. Since the epitaxial 3C-SiC can be conveniently nanofabricated, these stable near Cband SPSs would find important applications in the integrated photonic devices.     

Atmospheric Effects on an Earth-space Quantum Channel at 1.06 <Emphasis Type="Italic">μm</Emphasis>

Earth-space quantum communication is a challenge of telecommunication. It is necessary to face the interaction between photon and the atmosphere. In this letter, we study the propagating characterization of atmospheric effects on a stratospheric quantum communication system at 1.06 μm. By numerical analyzing the atmospheric environment on the quantum key distribution of a pulsed single photon propagating on earth-space paths, it is shown that under clear sky, atmospheric attenuation are obvious on quantum bit transmission rate.     

Extremely Low Operating Voltage Green Phosphorescent Organic Light‐Emitting Devices

Organic light‐emitting devices (OLEDs) are expected to be adopted as the next generation of general lighting because they are more efficient than fluorescent tubes and are mercury‐free. The theoretical limit of operating voltage is generally believed to be equal to the energy gap, which corresponds to the energy difference between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) for the emitter molecule divided by the electron charge (e). Here, green OLEDs operating below a theoretical limit of the energy gap (E_g) voltage with high external quantum efficiency over 20% are demonstrated using fac‐tris(2‐phenylpyridine)iridium(III) with a peak emission wavelength of 523 nm, which is equivalent to a photon energy of 2.38 eV. An optimized OLED operates clearly below the theoretical limit of the E_g voltage at 2.38 V showing 100 cd m^?2 at 2.25 V and 5000 cd m^?2 at 2.95 V without any light outcoupling enhancement techniques.     

基于多像素光子计数器的弱光可见光通信实验系统

可见光通信是一种将照明和通信相结合的新型无线通信技术,但是接收端所采用的传统光电检测器的探测动态范围小、探测效率低,限制着可见光通信的发展。为了进一步提升传输距离和通信速率,本文研究了阵列结构的多像素光子计数器(Multi-pixel Photon Counter, MPPC)在可见光通信中的接收模型。实验采用模拟型输出的MPPC作为接收端进行光电转换,首先在弱光实验条件下搭建了可见光通信实验系统,然后推导了基于理想泊松模型的最大似然检测算法并给出了相应的误码率仿真图。仿真结果表明该算法的误码率性能和传统均值检测算法相比更优。最后通过观察不同传输条件下的眼图研究了阵列结构输出的泊松模型和叠加特性,并用实验数据对算法仿真结果进行了验证。实验表明,在工程应用中阵列结构的MPPC相比传统单光子检测器具有一定的优越性,为后续可见光通信系统设计和优化提供了支撑。