Validation and adjustment of the mathematical prediction model for human sweat rate responses to outdoor environmental conditions

Under outdoor conditions this model was over estimating sweat loss response in shaded (low solar radiation) environments, and underestimating the response when solar radiation was high (open field areas). The present study was conducted in order to adjust the model to be applicable under outdoor environmental conditions. Four groups of fit acclimated subjects participated in the study. They were exposed to three climatic conditions (30 degrees, 65% rh; 31 degrees C, 40% rh; and 40 degrees C, 20% rh) and three levels of metabolic rate (100, 300 and 450 W) in shaded and sunny areas while wearing shorts, cotton fatigues (BDUs) or protective garments. The original predictive equation for sweat loss was adjusted for the outdoor conditions by evaluating separately the radiative heat exchange, short-wave absorption in the body and long-wave emission from the body to the atmosphere and integrating them in the required evaporation component (Ereq) of the model, as follows: Hr = 1.5SL0.6/I(T) (watt) H1 = 0.047Me.th/I(T) (watt), where SL is solar radiation (W.m-2), Me.th is the Stephan Boltzman constant, and I(T) is the effective clothing insulation coefficient. This adjustment revealed a high correlation between the measured and expected values of sweat loss (r = 0.99, p < 0.0001).     

Cost of locomotion and heat balance during rest and running from 0 to 55 degrees C in a patas monkey

A young patas monkey was run on a treadmill for 15-20 min at speeds in excess of 15 km times h-1 over a range of laboratory air temperatures from 0 to 55 degrees C. Cost of locomotion for the monkey was 83% that predicted for a running mammal of similar weight, 4 kg. At the highest steady-state running of speeds, the patas monkey's energy expenditure was 11 times the resting rate. Heat storage and respiratory evaporation during running each accounted for less than 16% of the heat production. Cutaneous evaporation, mainly sweating, was the major means of heat loss at high ambient temperatures and during heavy exercise. Maximum sweat rates of 0.5 mg times cm-2 times min-1 found in these experiments approach the sweat rates of humans. Whole-body dry thermal conductance increased 2-3 times the rest value at a given temperature. Environmentally gained heat contributed about two-thirds of the total heat load on the patas monkey at rest at 53 degrees C. At these same temperatures, environmental and metabolic heat loads were about equal when the animal ran at moderately high speeds (11-13.4 km times h-1).     

Effects of thermal stress during rest and exercise in the paediatric population

Thermoregulation during exposure to hot or cold environments differs between children and adults. Many physical and physiological changes occur during growth and maturation that can affect thermoregulation during rest as well as during exercise. Thus, physical as well as physiological differences between children and adults may explain the different response to thermal stress. The main physical difference between children and adults affecting thermoregulation is the much higher surface-area-to-mass ratio of children. In a warm environment this allows them to rely more on dry heat loss and less on evaporative cooling. However, in extreme conditions, hot or cold, the greater surface-area-to-mass ratio results in a higher rate of heat absorption or heat loss, respectively. The lower body fat in girls compared with women provides lower insulation and presents a disadvantage in a cold environment. The smaller blood volume in children compared with adults, even relative to body size, may limit the potential for heat transfer during heat exposure and may compromise exercise performance in the heat. The main physiological difference between children and adults is in the sweating mechanism, affecting their thermoregulation in the heat, but not in the cold. The lower sweating rate characteristic of children is due to a lower sweating rate per gland and not to a lower number of sweat glands. In fact, children are characterised by a higher density of heat-activated sweat glands. The lower sweating rate per gland may be explained by the smaller sweat gland size, a lower sensitivity of the sweating mechanism to thermal stimuli and, possibly, a lower sweat gland metabolic capacity. Other physiological differences between children and adults that may affect thermoregulation include metabolic, circulatory and hormonal disparities. The higher metabolic cost of locomotion in children provides an added strain on the thermoregulatory system during exercise in the heat. On the other hand, during acute exposure to cold it may prove advantageous by increasing heat production. Circulatory differences, such as a lower cardiac output at any given exercise intensity and the lower haemoglobin concentration in boys compared with men, are likely to increase the cardiovascular strain during exercise in the heat, although their effects in a cold environment are unknown. Finally, testosterone and prolactin are 2 hormones that differ in baseline levels between children and adults and may affect sweat gland function and sweat composition. These possible effects need to be further investigated. The effectiveness of thermoregulation is reflected by the stability of core temperature. In a thermoneutral environment, children are characterised by a similar rectal temperature and a higher skin temperature when compared with adults. The latter may reflect the higher reliance on dry heat loss compared with evaporative cooling in children. In a hot environment, children's body temperatures are higher compared with adults while walking and running but not necessarily while cycling. This may be related to the higher metabolic cost, and therefore higher heat production, in children while walking or running but not while cycling. In a cold environment, children are characterised by lower skin temperatures, reflecting greater vasoconstriction. Their metabolic heat is increased in the cold to a greater extent than that of adults, although this appears to be sufficient to maintain their body temperature during exercise but not during prolonged rest. Neither children nor adults sufficiently replace fluid loss during exercise in the heat. Nevertheless, recent studies suggest that in children, when the available beverage is flavoured and enriched with NaCl and carbohydrates, dehydration can be prevented. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)     

Effects of local restriction of evaporation and moderate local ventilation on thermoregulatory responses in exercising humans

Ten healthy young men participated in two series of three trials: series 1 (C1) with, or without, local restriction of evaporation (either on the trunk or on the legs) and series 2 (C2) with, or without, local moderate nitrogen ventilation (40 l.min-1) under an impermeable garment (trunk or leg ventilation). After 60-min rest in a thermoneutral environment, the subjects exercised in a warm environment [30 degrees C, 47% relative humidity (rh) during C1 and 29% rh during C2] on a cycle ergometer for 60 min at 70 W during C1 or at 60 W during C2. During C1, local covering with plastic foil did not increase internal temperature, but increased the mean skin temperature with a higher effect in the case of leg restriction. The trunk skin temperature was affected by the leg covering while the leg skin temperature was not changed by the trunk covering. Only the local sweat rate of the trunk was increased by the two restriction conditions. During C2, internal temperature was decreased by local ventilation while mean skin temperature was reduced only by trunk ventilation. The local ventilation affected only trunk skin temperature with a greater decrease during trunk ventilation. Trunk ventilation did not influence the skin temperature of the legs while ventilation of the legs decreased trunk skin temperature. In addition, leg ventilation decreased the sweat rate of the legs. The impermeable suit worn during C2 led to a greater physiological strain compared to the plastic film worn during C1 even with local ventilation under the impermeable garment. As expected, limiting sweat evaporation led to an increase in physiological strain. Microclimate ventilation at a rate of 40 l.min-1 was not sufficient to allow total heat dissipation but allowed 60-min exercise in a warm environment to be completed without excessive heat accumulation. It would appear that ventilation of the trunk locally was the best solution because of the smaller increase in skin temperature and higher sweating capacity of the trunk.     

Effect of three different warm-up regimens on heat balance and oxygen consumption of thoroughbred horses

Horses were exercised at 105% of their maximal O2 uptake until fatigued after three different warm-up regimens (no warm-up, a light warm-up, and a warm-up until the central venous temperature was > 39.5 degrees C) to assess the effect of the warm-up on the various avenues of heat loss. Approximately 12.79, 15.10, and 18.40 MJ of heat were generated in response to the warm-up and exercise after the three different warm-up regimens, respectively. Of the heat generated, 17.5, 17.2, and 17.4% remained as stored heat after 20 min of active recovery. Heat loss from the respiratory system was 63.6, 33.7, and 40.3% of the heat produced during and after the three warm-up intensities, respectively. The balance of the heat loss was assumed to be via the evaporation of sweat. On this basis, the heat loss by sweating was 14.9, 49.1, and 42.3% of the heat produced during and after the three warm-up intensities, which represented evaporation of 0.8, 3.1, and 3.0 liters of sweat, respectively. O2 consumption during exercise and heart rates 20 min postexercise, after two of the warm-up regimens, was significantly lower than that after no prior warm-up.     

Effects of artificially-induced anaemia on sudomotor and cutaneous blood flow responses to heat stress

The influence of artificially induced anaemia on thermal strain was evaluated in trained males. Heat stress trials (38.6 degrees C, water vapour pressure 2.74 kPa) performed at the same absolute work rates [20 min of seated rest, 20 min of cycling at 30% peak aerobic power (VO2pcak), and 20 min cycling at 45% VO2peak] were completed before (HST1) and 3-5 days after 3 units of whole blood were withdrawn (HST2). Mild anaemia did not elevate thermal strain between trials, with auditory canal temperatures terminating at 38.5 degrees C [(0.16), HST1] and 38.6 degrees C [(0.13), HST2; P > 0.05]. Given that blood withdrawal reduced aerobic power by 16%, this observation deviates from the close association often observed between core temperature and relative exercise intensity. During HST2, the absolute and integrated forearm sweat rate (mSW) exceeded control levels during exercise (P < 0.05), while a suppression of forehead mSW occurred (P < 0.05). These observations are consistent with a possible peripheral redistribution of sweat secretion. It was concluded that this level of artificially induced anaemia did not impact upon heat strain during a 60-min heat stress test.     

Alcohol and its variable effect on human thermoregulatory response to exercise in a warm environment

The aim of this study was to observe the effect of alcohol ingestion on body temperature and local sweat rate during endogenous and exogenous heat stress. After ingesting either alcohol (1.2 g alcohol/kg of body weight) or a placebo drink, 8 subjects exercised for 60 minutes at 45% VO2max in a warm environment (35 degrees C, 45% RH). Varying patterns of response were observed in these subjects, with no consistent effect on the thermoregulatory response seen. The absence of any significant change in skin and body temperature and in sweat rate suggests that the capacity of the body to struggle against exogenous and endogenous heat is not fundamentally altered by alcohol ingestion. The difference in individual response observed in our experiment is in accord with the previous lack of clearcut effect of alcohol reported in the literature.     

蓝宝石单晶炉隔热屏内胆损坏机理

通过研究金属钼（Mo）在真空环境下蒸发速率和饱和蒸气压与温度的关系,探讨了蓝宝石单晶炉Mo隔热屏内胆的损坏机理。结果表明,蓝宝石单晶炉的核心工作温度在2100 ℃以上,每炉的高温阶段时间超过120 h,隔热屏内胆在高真空环境下产生蒸发,由电子显微结构可以看到Mo片表面疏松、多孔,厚度逐渐变薄、剥落,失去隔热作用。利用金属高温环境下的蒸发速率、饱和蒸气压和工作时间推算出金属因蒸发而造成的厚度变化公式,由公式测算出来蓝宝石单晶炉的隔热屏内胆变薄的趋势与实际使用寿命相吻合。由于金属钨（W）的熔点比钼更高,利用该公式可以测算出W在蓝宝石单晶炉最严苛的工作条件下几乎不会蒸发变薄,是一种理想的隔热屏内胆替代品。     

Mountains, snow, and skin

In summary, I believe that there has not been enough scientific investigation of the significance of skin function in relation to strenuous climbing in everchanging and adverse mountain conditions. Such investigation should include chemical study of sweat before, during, and after climbing, as well as study of the physical, chemical, and cellular changes of the skin itself. I believe first in prevention of climbing-related general and cutaneous medical problems before they appear. This certainly can be done with well planned and prepared programs. Our climbing should be as pleasant and comfortable as possible. Unless there is an emergency situation, there is no need for "heroic" suffering. In any unfavorable health or environmental condition, the mountaineer should turn back immediately. Certainly, painful skin lesions, whatever they might be, are no less important than is the general health in making this decision.     

Incidence of asystole in electroconvulsive therapy in elderly patients

We hypothesize that selective brain cooling (SBC) can occur in hyperthermic humans despite the fact that humans have no carotid rete, a vascular structure that facilitates countercurrent heat exchange and that is located at the base of the skull in some mammals. We postulate that an increase in emissary and angular ocular venous flows contributes to SBC. The efficiency of SBC is increased by evaporation of sweat on the head and by ventilation through the nose. A body position that increases the intravenous pressure gradient across the skull increases emissary flows and hence enhances the efficiency of SBC. The validity of using tympanic temperature as an index of brain temperature is also postulated.     

Responses to temperate, cold, and hot environments and the effect of physical training

Ten young men underwent several tests before and after a training program: a bicycle ergometer test and 60 min of moderate exercise performed at a temperate 24 degrees C; the same work load performed in heat (40.0 degrees C DB, 30.4 degrees C WB) for 3 h; and cold (10 degrees C) exposure for 60 min. Training consisted of 13 1-h sessions of hard, strenuous, and exhaustive work performed in temperate conditions four times a week. Training resulted in substantial decreases in heart rate and rectal temperature responses to exercise in temperate, minor increases in hot, and no significant changes in cold conditions. Subjects who showed good responses to heat, also showed good responses at 24 degrees C, and poor compensatory responses to cold, which were indicated by relatively low heat production and rectal temperature values, and relatively high body heat loss and extremities temperature values. Subjects who showed poor heat tolerance also showed poor responses in temperate and good compensatory responses in cold conditions. Positive correlation coefficients were found between rectal temperatures in the three environments, and between heart rate and sweat rate responses in temperate and hot conditions. The results indicated that moderately severe training causes minor tolerance improvements in heat and no changes in cold, and that responses in temperate, cold, and hot environments are interdependent.     

Evaporation of iron during steelmaking in arc furnaces

The problems of iron evaporation during steelmaking in an arc steel-melting furnace are considered. A procedure is developed for the calculation of the specific iron evaporation rate and the heat losses during evaporation. More complete absorption of the heat of condensation by a charge and the oxidation of iron vapors are shown to be promoted by the following factors: the presence of a slag coating, a decrease in the well diameter, an increase in the well depth, an increase in the electrode failure diameter, and directional supply of an oxidizer to the near-electrode zone.     

面向船舶多种余热梯级利用的TEG-ORC联合循环性能

传统的温差发电（TEG）和有机朗肯循环（ORC）等技术难以兼顾船舶多种性质余热的不同特点,且利用率较低。本文提出了一种TEG-ORC联合循环船舶余热梯级利用系统,研究了ORC底循环蒸发压力变化对系统输出功率、热效率、多级余热利用量和成本等重要性能的影响。结果表明,TEG-ORC联合循环实现了发电成本和热效率的优化,在TEG/ORC底循环比为0.615的工况下,主机烟气余热利用率随ORC蒸发压力的增加在小区间波动,系统的余热利用功率、输出功率和热效率均随ORC蒸发压力的增加而增大,系统单位发电成本随ORC蒸发压力的增加而降低。在ORC蒸发压力达到0.9 MPa时,主机烟气余热利用率为62.15%,余热利用功率为1919.68 W,输出功率为139.22 W,热效率为7.25%,单位发电成本为3.09 ￥·(kW·h)–1。      

Stress induction of retrotransposon transposition in Drosophila: reality of the phenomenon, characteristic features, possible role in rapid evolution

A polygenic system of expression of the quantitative character radius incompletus was shown to be sensitive to external and physiological stresses: heat shock, gamma-irradiation, isogenization, etc. This stress response involved mobilization of retrotransposons. Heavy heat shock induced transpositions of Dm412 and B104 in three and one isogenic lines, respectively. The induced transposition rate was (2.5-11.0) x 10(-2) per site per sperm per generation, i.e., 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than for spontaneous transpositions. Induction of transpositions by gamma-radiation yielded similar estimates. Recently, induction of transpositions and excisions by isogenization was demonstrated; transposition and excision rates were, respectively, 0.35 and 0.13 per site per sperm per generation, which was 2-3 orders of magnitude higher than in control lines. In all these cases, stress induction of retrotransposon transpositions was mediated by molecular mechanisms of the heat shock system-the general system of cell resistance to external and physiological stress factors. From the viewpoint of evolution, stress induction of transpositions is a powerful factor generating new genetic variation in populations under stressful environmental conditions. Passing through a "bottleneck," a population can rapidly and significantly alter its population norm and become the founder of new, normal forms.     

Computer-Aided Development and Simulation Tools for Shape-Memory Actuators

This article discusses the dynamic properties of shape-memory alloy (SMA) actuators, which are characterized by their rate of heating and cooling procedures and can be described only insufficiently for different boundary conditions. Based on an analysis of energy fluxes into and out of the actuator, a numerical model implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK (MathWorks, Natick, MA) is presented. Besides the fluxes, the time-variable parameters like the latent heat of transformation or the influence of stress on the transformation temperatures are also included in the model. These parameters, depending on actuator geometry and temperature, the fraction of martensite, and the environmental conditions, are considered in the simulation in real time. In addition, this publication sums up the needed empirical data (e.g., fatigue behavior) to create a general-purpose engineering tool. The SMA wire-based actuation system can be configured by drag-and-drop tools and finally simulated and graphically displayed for different actuator systems. The development and verification of such a tool (called CASMADA) from theoretical equations to the verification on real elements is the main topic of this publication.     

Heat and Mass Transfer during Microwave Steam Treatment of Contaminated Soils

A time-dependent mechanistic model has been developed to describe the coupled heat and mass transfer during microwave steam treatment of contaminated soils. The model consists of multiphase mass and energy conservation equations, along with various temperature-dependent parameterizations of important physical state properties. The coupled nonlinear equations were solved numerically by applying a macroscopic control volume method with the appropriate boundary and initial conditions and using a finite-difference scheme. Microwave heating experiments of soil samples were performed. The effects of microwave power, soil sample depth, and soil type on water evaporation rate and temperature were measured with time. The modeled results are in good agreement with the experimental data. The results revealed that microwave power density and soil sample depth significantly affect the microwave evaporation process of water from soils. Water evaporation rate and temperature variation are complex and associated with the dielectric properties of liquid water distributed within the soil. The deeper the soil sample, the more nonuniform the evaporation process, although nonuniformities diminish as the evaporation process approaches completion. Finally it was verified that soil types and their thermal properties play a minor role, provided that the soil minerals are microwave transparent.     

Aluminum Alloys with Identical Plastic Flow and Different Strain Rate Sensitivity

Mg-rich and Si-rich aluminum alloys from the AA6XXX class are considered to demonstrate that standard heat treatments can be used to produce materials with identical plastic flow (yield stress and strain hardening) and different strain rate sensitivity. The Mg-rich alloy exhibits lower strain rate sensitivity and a different variation of this parameter with the stress (Haasen plot) relative to the Si-rich alloy. This is due to the instantaneous component of the strain rate sensitivity being smaller in the Mg-rich alloy. Hence, the underlying mechanism is not related to the presence of free, fast diffusing Mg atoms, but rather to the different nature of precipitates forming in the two alloys. A simple model is used to demonstrate that it is possible to tailor the strain rate sensitivity while preserving the flow stress by controlling the nature of precipitates and that of the dislocation-precipitate interaction.     

Estimating Evaporation from Bare Soil and the Crop Coefficient for the Initial Period Using Common Soils Information

The crop coefficient during the initial period (Kc?ini) varies with wetting frequency, evaporative demand, and water-holding capacity of the upper soil layer. It is possible to develop a semitheoretical integrated function to predict the average Kc?ini representing the initial period of a growing season when the soil is mostly bare and that incorporates these three factors. The function is based on a two-stage evaporation function as used in the Food and Agriculture Organization Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56 (FAO-56) dual crop coefficient method. Parameters in the integrated equation are soil based and can be calculated a priori without field measurements. The procedure can be used to produce graphical figures similar to that introduced in FAO-24 for Kc?ini. Similar to FAO-24, the function utilizes the mean time between wetting events and reference evapotranspiration. In this paper, the development of the procedure and figures for Kc?ini are described. Comparisons with measured evaporation and Kc?ini in southern California indicate relatively good performance by the function without calibration.     

Elements of the Socratic method: II. Inductive reasoning.

The Socratic method uses systematic questioning and inductive reasoning to help clients derive universal definitions. In psychotherapy, inductive reasoning can be based on enumerative generalizations, analogical comparisons, and eliminative causal reasoning. Enumerative generalizations use pattern identification to support a conclusion about an entire group of events. Analogical comparisons help clients transfer knowledge from familiar to novel situations. Eliminative causal reasoning involves manipulating environmental conditions to examine possible causes of specific problematic events. After a probable cause has been identified, it can be modified through treatment. The clinical utility and fallacies of logical reasoning are discussed as they apply to each of the 3 forms of inductive reasoning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disorders of temperature regulation

A remarkably effective and efficient thermoregulatory apparatus enables humans to maintain a normal body temperature despite widely varying and changing environmental and internal thermal conditions. Nevertheless, extreme ambient cold or heat and exhaustive exercise stress can overwhelm these defenses, leading to dangerous hypothermia or hyperthermia, respectively.