Hot deformation behavior and finite element simulation of Mg–8.3Gd–4.4Y–1.5Zn–0.8Mn alloy

To study the hot deformation behavior of Mg–8.3Gd–4.4Y–1.5Zn–0.8Mn (wt%) alloy, hot compression tests were conducted using a Gleeble–3500 thermal simulator at temperatures ranging from 653 to 773 K, true strain rates of 0.001–1 s^?1, and a deformation degree of 60%. Results of hot compression experiments show that the flow stress of the alloy increases with the strain rate. The true stress–true strain curves are corrected by correcting the effect of temperature rise in the deformation process. Activation energy, Q, equal to 287380 J/mol and material constant, n, equal to 4.59 were calculated by fitting the true stress–true strain curves. Then, the constitutive equation was established and verified via finite element simulation. Results of the hot processing map show that the probability of material instability increases with the degree of deformation, which indicates that the material is not suitable for large deformation in a single pass. On the whole, the alloy is appropriate for multipass processing with small deformation and a suitable processing temperature and strain rate are 733 K and 0.01 s^?1, respectively.     

Tensile Work Hardening Behavior of Thin-Section Plate and Thick-Section Tubeplate Forging of 9Cr-1Mo Steel in the Framework of One-Internal-Variable Kocks–Mecking Approach

Comparative tensile flow and work hardening behavior of normalized and tempered plate and quenched and tempered tubeplate forgings of 9Cr-1Mo steel have been examined in the framework of one-internal-variable Kocks–Mecking approach at temperatures ranging from 300 K to 873 K (27 °C to 600 °C). Detailed analysis in terms of the variations of instantaneous work hardening rate, θ (θ = dσ/dε _p = dσ _p/dε _p, where σ is the true stress, σ _p is the plastic flow stress component, and ε _p is the true plastic strain) with σ and σ _p indicated two-stage work hardening behavior, and three distinct temperature regimes in the variations of work hardening parameters, θ ? σ and θ ? σ _p, with temperature. The influence of initial microstructures associated with different product forms of the steel is reflected in the systematic variations in work hardening parameters at temperatures ranging from 300 K to 873 K (27 °C to 600 °C). Tubeplate forging exhibited improved work hardening characteristics in terms of higher plastic component of flow stress because of microstructural softening than that of the plate material in the steel.     

Deformation Mechanisms in the Near-β Titanium Alloy Ti-55531

The hot formability of a near-β titanium alloy is studied near the β transus temperature to determine the mechanisms of deformation. Compression tests of Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-3Cr-1Zr are carried out using a Gleeble^®1500 device between 1036 K and 1116 K (763 °C and 843 °C) and strain rates between 0.001 and 10 s^?1. The achieved flow data are used to calculate the efficiency of power dissipation, the strain rate sensitivity, and instability parameters derived from different models. Constitutive equations are built using the stress values at the strain of 0.4. Light optical microscopy and EBSD measurements are used to correlate the parameters that describe formability with the microstructure. It is found that hot deformation is achieved by dynamic recovery in the β phase by subgrain formation. Geometric dynamic recrystallization along the β grain boundaries takes place at large deformations, high temperatures, and low strain rates. On the other hand, for high strain rates, continuous dynamic recrystallization by lattice rotation already starts at a local strain of 1. Different phenomenological models are used to predict the flow instabilities, where the flow-softening parameter α _i provides the best correlation with microstructure as well as the physical understanding. The instabilities observed in this alloy are strongly related to flow localization by adiabatic heat.     

Mg-5.52Zn-1.73Nd-0.71Cd-0.5Zr镁合金的热变形组织和力学性能

采用Gleeble-1500热模拟机研究Mg-Zn-Nd-Cd-Zr合金在温度为300～420℃、应变速率为0.001～1S-1、最大变形程度为80％的条件下的高温变形行为.采用光学显微镜及透射电镜研究Mg-Zn-Nd-Cd-Zr镁合金在不同压缩变形条件下的组织形貌特征.结果表明:在实验条件下,合金的流变应力-应变曲线...     

High-Temperature Mechanical Behavior of Extruded Mg-Y-Zn Alloy Containing LPSO Phases

The high-temperature mechanical behavior of extruded Mg_97?3x Y_2x Zn _x (at. pct) alloys is evaluated from 473 K to 673 K (200 °C to 400 °C). The microstructure of the extruded alloys is characterized by Long Period Stacking Ordered structure (LPSO) elongated particles within the magnesium matrix. At low temperature and high strain rates, their creep behavior shows a high stress exponent (n = 11) and high activation energy. Alloys behave as a metal matrix composite where the magnesium matrix transfers part of its load to the LPSO phase. At high-temperature and/or low stresses, creep is controlled by nonbasal dislocation slip. At intermediate and high strain rates at 673 K (400 °C) and at intermediate strain rates between 623 K and 673 K (350 °C and 400 °C), the extruded alloys show superplastic deformation with elongations to failure higher than 200 pct. Cracking of coarse LPSO second-phase particles and their subsequent distribution in the magnesium matrix take place during superplastic deformation, preventing magnesium grain growth.     

A modified Johnson-Cook constitutive relationship for a rare-earth containing magnesium alloy

Lightweight magnesium alloy has recently attracted a considerable interest in the automotive and aerospace industries to improve fuel efficiency and reduce CO2 emissions via the weight reduction of vehicles.Rare-earth（RE） element addition can remarkably improve the mechanical properties of magnesium alloys through weakening crystallographic textures associated with the strong mechanical anisotropy and tension-compression yield asymmetry.While the addition of RE elements sheds some light on the alteration in the mechanical anisotropy,available information on the constitutive relationships used to describe the flow behavior of RE-containing magnesium alloys is limited.To establish such a constitutive relationship,uniaxial compressive deformation tests were first conducted on an extruded Mg-10Gd-3Y-0.5Zr（GW103K） magnesium alloy at the strain rates ranging from 1×10–1 to 1×10–4s–1 at room temperature.A modified Johnson-Cook constitutive equation based on a recent strain hardening equation was proposed to predict the flow stresses of GW103K alloy.Comparisons between the predicted and experimental results showed that the modified Johnson-Cook constitutive equation was able to predict the flow stresses of the RE-containing magnesium alloy fairly accurately with a standard deviation of about 1.8%.     

Nitride Nanoparticle Addition to Beneficially Reinforce Hybrid Magnesium Alloys

This study is aimed at understanding the function of two nitride nanoparticles regarding altering the mechanical properties of hybrid magnesium alloys in relation to nanoparticle-matrix reactivity. Nitride nanoparticles were selected for reinforcement purposes due to the affinity between magnesium and nitrogen (in parallel with the well-known magnesium-oxygen affinity). AZ91/ZK60A and AZ31/AZ91 hybrid magnesium alloys were reinforced with AlN and Si₃N₄ nanoparticles (respectively) using solidification processing followed by hot extrusion. Each nitride nanocomposite exhibited higher tensile strength than the corresponding monolithic hybrid alloy. However, AZ91/ZK60A/AlN exhibited slightly lower tensile ductility than AZ91/ZK60A, while AZ31/AZ91/Si₃N₄ exhibited higher tensile ductility than AZ31/AZ91. The formation of high strain zones (HSZs) (from particle surfaces inclusive) during tensile deformation as a significant mechanism supporting ductility enhancement was addressed. AZ91/ZK60A/AlN exhibited lower and higher compressive strength and ductility (respectively) compared to AZ91/ZK60A, while AZ31/AZ91/Si₃N₄ exhibited higher and unchanged compressive strength and ductility (respectively) compared to AZ31/AZ91. Nanograin formation (recrystallization) during room temperature compressive deformation (as a toughening mechanism) in relation to nanoparticle-stimulated nucleation (NSN) ability was also discussed. The beneficial (as well as comparative) effects of the respective nitride nanoparticle on each hybrid alloy are studied in this article.     

Effect of Stress Level on the High Temperature Deformation and Fracture Mechanisms of Ti-45Al-2Nb-2Mn-0.8 vol. pct TiB2: An In Situ Experimental Study

The effect of the applied stress on the deformation and crack nucleation and propagation mechanisms of a γ-TiAl intermetallic alloy (Ti-45Al-2Nb-2Mn (at. pct)-0.8 vol. pct TiB₂) was examined by means of in situ tensile (constant strain rate) and tensile-creep (constant load) experiments performed at 973 K (700 °C) using a scanning electron microscope. Colony boundary cracking developed during the secondary stage in creep tests at 300 and 400 MPa and during the tertiary stage of the creep tests performed at higher stresses. Colony boundary cracking was also observed in the constant strain rate tensile test. Interlamellar ledges were only found during the tensile-creep tests at high stresses (σ > 400 MPa) and during the constant strain rate tensile test. Quantitative measurements of the nature of the crack propagation path along secondary cracks and along the primary crack indicated that colony boundaries were preferential sites for crack propagation under all the conditions investigated. The frequency of interlamellar cracking increased with stress, but this fracture mechanism was always of secondary importance. Translamellar cracking was only observed along the primary crack.     

On some aspects of compressive properties and serrated flow in Mg-Y-Nd-Zr alloy

The deformation behavior of the Mg-Y-Nd-Zr (WE54) alloy at temperatures between 25 and 400 °C was investigated by uniaxial and plans strain compression tests at strain rate values of 10-2 and 10-4 s-1....     

The effect of atomic order on the Hall-Petch behavior in Ni3Fe

In both disordered and ordered Ni₃Fe the flow stress obeys the generalized Hall-Petch relationship σ_∈=σ_0,∈ + k_∈d^-1/2. At low strains the Hall-Petch slopek _ε increases with increasing strain in both states of order and is always higher for the ordered state.k _ε passes through a maximum in both states. The maximum occurs in the ordered alloy at nearly twice the strain for the disordered. The relative magnitude and the variation of the Hall-Petch slope as influenced by order can be accounted for by considering the differences in the cross slip behavior between ordered and disordered states. The parabolic increase ink _ε with strain up to the maximum can be interpreted in terms of a model which relates the average dislocation density to flow stress and strain, and to the attendant Hall-Petch slope. The observed decrease in the Hall-Petch slope beyond the maximum may be attributed to dynamic recovery in the alloy. The friction stress σ_0,∈ increases with strain almost linearly in both ordered and disordered states and is always higher in the ordered alloy.     

Analysis of the Deformation Behavior in Tension and Tension-Creep of Ti-3Al-2.5V (wt pct) at 296 K and 728 K (23 °C and 455 °C) Using In Situ SEM Experiments

The deformation behavior of a Ti-3Al-2.5V (wt pct) near-α alloy was investigated during in situ deformation inside a scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Two plates with distinct textures were examined. Tensile experiments were performed at 296 K and 728 K (455 °C) (~0.4T _m), while a tensile-creep experiment was performed at 728 K (455 °C) and 180 MPa (σ/σ _ys = 0.72). The active deformation systems were identified in the α phase using electron backscattered diffraction based slip-trace analysis and SEM images of the surface. Prismatic slip deformation was the dominant slip mode observed for all the experiments in both plates, which was supported by a critical resolved shear stress (CRSS) ratio analysis. However, due to the texture of plate 1, which strongly favored the activation of prismatic slip, the percentages of prismatic slip activity for specimens from plate 1 tested at 296 K and 728 K (23 °C and 455 °C) were higher than the specimens from plate 2 under the same testing conditions. T1 twinning was an active deformation mode at both 296 K and 728 K (23 °C and 455 °C), but the extent of twinning activity decreased with increased temperature. T1 twinning was more frequently observed in specimens from plate 2, which exhibited a higher fraction of twinning systems favoring activation at both 296 K and 728 K (23 °C and 455 °C). The tension-creep experiment revealed less slip and more grain boundary sliding than in the higher strain rate tensile experiments. Using a previously demonstrated bootstrapping statistical analysis methodology, the relative CRSS ratios of prismatic, pyramidal 〈a〉, pyramidal 〈c+a〉, and T1 twinning deformation systems compared with basal slip were calculated and discussed in light of similar measurements made on CP Ti and Ti-5Al-2.5Sn (wt pct).     

医用镍钛合金的制备与热压缩变形行为

采用真空感应熔炼法制备了医用Ti-50. 7%Ni合金(原子数分数), 测试了铸态合金的成分、相变点、微观组织和硬度, 并采用Gleeble-3800热模拟实验机在变形温度750~950℃、应变速率0. 001~1 s-1, 应变量为0. 5的条件下对Ni-Ti合金进行高温压缩变形, 分析其流动应力变化规律, 建立了高温塑性变形本构关系和热加工图.结果表明: 当变形温度减小或应变速率增大时, Ni-Ti合金的流动应力会随之增大.应变速率为1 s-1时, 合金的真应力-真应变曲线呈现出锯齿状特征.根据热加工图, 获得了Ni-Ti合金的加工安全区和流变失稳区, 进而确定其合理的热变形温度范围为820~880℃, 真应变速率低于0. 1 s-1.从而为制定镍钛合金的锻造工艺参数提供理论和数据基础.      

Behavior of a nickel-base high-temperature alloy under hot-working conditions

The behavior of a Ni-Cr-Co base alloy with significant additions of Mo, Ti and Al (Nimonic 105) under hot working conditions was studied using hot compression tests in the temperature range of 1223 to 1523 K and strain rates between 0.38 and 64.3 s^-1. The microstructure of the Nimonic 105 is complex and the matrix contains second phases in the form of Ni₃ (Ti, Al) dispersion (γ′), various Cr and Ti carbides and titanium cyanonitrides inclusions. However, the results show that above the dissolution temperature of the γ′ phase, the alloy behaves like a single phase nickel-base solid solution from the point view of steady state flow stress-temperature-strain rate relationships, and the activation energies for hot working and static recrystallization. Under deformation conditions where the γ′ phase is present, as in the case of creep, the activation energy is almost doubled. The hot working temperature range giving sound product is 1280 to 1450 K (170 K) at a strain rate of 0.4 s^-1 and decreases to 1400 to 1480 K (80 K) at a strain rate of 65 s^-1. At temperatures above the higher limit the alloy suffers intercrystalline cracks due to hot shortness and at temperatures below the lower limit the alloy suffers transcrystalline cracks due to excessive strain hardening.     

Hot Deformation Behavior of Beta Titanium Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al Alloy

Hot compression tests were conducted on Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al beta-Ti alloy in the temperature range of 1203 K to 1353 K (930 °C to 1080 °C) and at strain rates between 0.001 and 1 s^?1 The stress–strain curves showed pronounced yield point phenomena at high strain rates and low temperatures. The yield point elongation and flow stresses at the upper and lower yield points were related to the Zener–Hollomon parameter. It was found that dynamic recovery at low strain rates and dynamic recrystallization at high strain rates were the controlling mechanisms of microstructural evolution. The results also showed that strain rate had a stronger influence on the hot deformation behavior than temperature. The microstructural observations and constitutive analysis of flow stress data supported the change in the hot deformation behavior of the studied alloy varies with strain rate. For various applied strain rates, the activation energy for hot deformation was calculated in range of 199.5 to 361.7 kJ/mol. At low strain rates (0.001 and 0.01 s^?1), the value of activation energy was very close to the activation energy for the diffusion of V, Cr, and Al in beta titanium. The higher value of activation energy for deformation at high strain rates (0.1 and 1 s^?1) was attributed to the accumulation of dislocations and the tendency to initiate dynamic recrystallization.     

2524铝合金的热压缩变形行为

利用Gleeble-1500热模拟实验机,对2524铝合金进行高温等温压缩试验,实验变形温度为300～500℃,应变速率为0.01～10 s-1的条件下,研究了2524铝合金的流变变形行为。结果表明:合金流变应力的大小跟变形温度和应变速率有很大关联,2524铝合金真应力-应变曲线中,流变应力开始随应变增加而增大,达到峰值后趋于平稳,表现出动态回复特征,而峰值流变应力随变形温度的降低和应变速率的升高而增大;在流变速率ε为10 s-1,变形温度300℃以上时,应力出现锯齿波动,合金表现出动态再结晶特征。采用温度补偿应变速率Zener-Hollomon参数值来描述2524铝合金在高温塑性变形流变行为时,其变形激活能Q为216.647 kJ/mol。在等温热压缩形变中,合金可加工条件为:高应变速率(>0.5 s-1)或低应变速率(0.01 s-1～0.02 s-1)、高应变温度(440℃～500℃)。     

Cu-Cr-Zr合金热变形行为

在Gleeble-1500D热模拟试验机上,采用高温等温压缩试验,在变形温度650~850℃、应变速率0.001~10 s~(-1)和总压缩应变量50%的条件下,对Cu-Cr-Zr合金的流变应力行为进行研究.通过应力-应变曲线和显微组织图分析了合金在不同应变速率、不同应变温度下的变化规律.结果表明:应变速率和变形温度对合金再结晶影响较大,变形温度越高,合金越容易发生动态再结晶;应变速率越小,合金也同样容易发生动态再结晶,并且对应的峰值应力也越小.从流变应力、应变速率和温度的相关性,得出了该合金热压缩变形时的热变形激活能Q和流变应力方程.研究分析Cu-Cr-Zr合金的热加工性能,可为生产实践提供理论指导与借鉴.     

Impression Creep Behavior of an Mg–Zn–RE Alloy at Elevated Temperatures

Mg–Zn–RE alloys are promising candidates for automotive and aerospace applications as, among magnesium alloys, they have better corrosion and creep resistance abilities at elevated temperatures. This study evaluates the high-temperature creep behavior of ZE41 magnesium alloy, belonging to the Mg–Zn–RE family, using impression test. Impression tests were performed under a constant temperature and stress with a flat-ended cylindrical punch. Power law and Eyring relationships were used to analyze the creep mechanism. By applying the power-law relationship, it was found that the creep exponent decreased from 7.5 to 4 in the temperature range of 493 K to 593 K. Activation energy increased from 78.5 to 107.1 kJ/mol in the applied stress range of 350 to 500 MPa (normalized stress: 0.024 ≤ σ_imp/G ≥ 0.034). Using the Eyring relationship, a single activation energy of 25 kJ/mol for the entire stress and temperature range was obtained. Based on the creep exponent and activation energy, it is proposed that pipe-diffusion-controlled dislocation climb is the dominant mechanism, but grain boundary sliding also contributes at higher stresses.

     

Effect of strain rate and temperature on hot workability and flow behaviour of duplex stainless steel

The flow behaviour and processing map of a duplex stainless steel were studied via hot compressive tests in a temperature range of 1223–1473?K and a strain rate range of 0.01–30?s^??1. The effect of strain rate and temperature on the hot workability, strain partitioning and dominant flow behaviour of the alloy was systematically investigated. It is found that the softening mechanism of each constituent phase differs from each other. The ferrite is softened by dynamic recovery and continuous dynamic recrystallisation (CDRX), while the austenite is softened only by the limited discontinuous dynamic recrystallisation (DDRX). At lower strain rates (0.01 and 0.1?s^??1), the strain is mainly accommodated by ferrite due to its excellent softening capability, which causes the apparent activation energy Q_p to decline continuously with the increase in true strain. In this case, plastic deformation of the austenite rarely occurs, and at this time, DDRX of austenite is not observed. When the strain rate increases, CDRX of ferrite is weakened at a relative low temperature, which prompts the strain transfer into austenite and induces the strain hardening due to its restricted softening. Accordingly, interactions between the strain hardening in austenite and weakened softening of ferrite leads to one or more platforms of Q formed at the medium stage of deformation (1–30?s^??1). The processing map shows that two flow instability regions appear at high strain rate due to the lack of sufficient response time for dynamic restoration at the early deformation stage. As the strain increases, dynamic softening mechanism is activated at a higher temperature, resulting in a gradually narrowed flow instability region. Differently, a decrease in temperature suppresses dynamic softening of the alloy with a high strain rate, which deteriorates the hot workability of the alloy and induces microcrack formation after straining of 0.8.     

Creep and low-cycle fatigue behavior of ferritic Fe-24Cr-4Al alloy in the dynamic strain aging regime: Effect of aluminum addition

Creep and low-cycle fatigue behavior of ferritic Fe-24Cr-4Al alloy was studied in the temperature range of 673 to 873 K, where dynamic strain aging (DSA) occurrence was found. The DSA of the alloy manifested in the form of serrated flow, negative strain rate sensitivity, and the peak or plateau in the variations of yield strength (YS) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) with temperature. The characteristic creep behavior of the alloy was experimentally verified as that for a class I solid solution. However, this ferritic alloy showed an anomalous high stress exponent (n=5.7) and high activation energy (Q _c =285 kJ/mol) of the secondary creep, which were commonly exhibited by class II solid solutions. During cyclic deformation, the alloy displayed serration in the stress-strain hysteresis loops, increased cyclic hardening, and enhanced planarity of dislocations. On the basis of the observed experimental results and proper analysis, it was proposed that there was strong elastic interaction between solute aluminum atoms and dislocations in the DSA temperature domain. The anomalous creep and fatigue features were interpreted in terms of the interaction of aluminum with the dislocations.