Theory, not cultural context, will advance American psychology.

Comments on an article by J. J. Arnett (see record 2008-14338-003) regarding the assertion that American psychology focuses too narrowly on Americans while neglecting the other 95% of the world’s population. The authors agree with Arnett's call for greater attention to this issue. However, they fundamentally disagree with his position on issues related to generalizability and basic research. The goal of this comment is to provide a critical evaluation of Arnett’s primary arguments as well as to offer alternative strategies for facilitating scientific progress on cultural and diversity issues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parent-child conversations about science: The socialization of gender inequities?

This study investigated the family as a context for the gender typing of science achievement. Adolescents (N=52) from 2 age levels (mean ages=11 and 13 years) participated with their mothers and fathers on separate occasions; families were from predominantly middle-income European American backgrounds. Questionnaires measured the parents' and the child's attitudes. Each parent also engaged his or her child in 4 structured teaching activities (including science and nonscience tasks). There were no child gender or grade-level differences in children's science-related grades, self-efficacy, or interest. However, parents were more likely to believe that science was less interesting and more difficult for daughters than sons. In addition, parents' beliefs significantly predicted children's interest and self-efficacy in science. When parents' teaching language was examined, fathers tended to use more cognitively demanding speech with sons than with daughters during one of the science tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relevance framework for category-based induction: Evidence from garden-path arguments.

Relevance theory (Sperber & Wilson, 1995) suggests that people expend cognitive effort when processing information in proportion to the cognitive effects to be gained from doing so. This theory has been used to explain how people apply their knowledge appropriately when evaluating category-based inductive arguments (Medin, Coley, Storms, & Hayes, 2003). In such arguments, people are told that a property is true of premise categories and are asked to evaluate the likelihood that it is also true of conclusion categories. According to the relevance framework, reasoners generate hypotheses about the relevant relation between the categories in the argument. We reasoned that premises inconsistent with early hypotheses about the relevant relation would have greater effects than consistent premises. We designed three premise garden-path arguments where the same 3rd premise was either consistent or inconsistent with likely hypotheses about the relevant relation. In Experiments 1 and 2, we showed that effort expended processing consistent premises (measured via reading times) was significantly less than effort expended on inconsistent premises. In Experiment 2 and 3, we demonstrated a direct relation between cognitive effect and cognitive effort. For garden-path arguments, belief change given inconsistent 3rd premises was significantly correlated with Premise 3 (Experiment 3) and conclusion (Experiments 2 and 3) reading times. For consistent arguments, the correlation between belief change and reading times did not approach significance. These results support the relevance framework for induction but are difficult to accommodate under other approaches. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessing an Engineering Day Camp for Middle-School Girls

Many engineering outreach activities are conducted for young people on university campuses. Many of these programs have some assessment in place, but few have reported results of multiple evaluation and assessment tools. The Future Engineers’ Summer Camp, an engineering day camp for middle-school girls, is a week-long day camp containing hands-on, minds-on activities spanning a range of engineering disciplines. Evaluation and assessment tools including a retrospective survey, evaluation cards, and focus groups are used to evaluate the camp’s activities and determine effectiveness in increasing girls’ knowledge of and attitudes and aspirations toward engineering. Analysis of retrospective surveys demonstrates that the girls learn about engineering while participating in the camp. Evaluation cards, used to evaluate individual activities, indicate that fun is positively correlated with the overall rating of an activity. Additionally, while the girls in the camp already have positive attitudes and high aspirations related to math and science, the camp reinforces these attributes. Recordings and scribe notes of focus-group discussions support retrospective survey results.     

Teaching Bayesian reasoning in less than two hours.

The authors present and test a new method of teaching Bayesian reasoning, something about which previous teaching studies reported little success. Based on G. Gigerenzer and U. Hoffrage's (1995) ecological framework, the authors wrote a computerized tutorial program to train people to construct frequency representations (representation training) rather than to insert probabilities into Bayes's rule (rule training). Bayesian computations are simpler to perform with natural frequencies than with probabilities, and there are evolutionary masons for assuming that cognitive algorithms have been developed to deal with natural frequencies. In 2 studies, the authors compared representation training with rule training; the criteria were an immediate learning effect, transfer to new problems, and long-term temporal stability. Rule training was as good in transfer as representation training, but representation training had a higher immediate learning effect and greater temporal stability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ambient belonging: How stereotypical cues impact gender participation in computer science.

People can make decisions to join a group based solely on exposure to that group’s physical environment. Four studies demonstrate that the gender difference in interest in computer science is influenced by exposure to environments associated with computer scientists. In Study 1, simply changing the objects in a computer science classroom from those considered stereotypical of computer science (e.g., Star Trek poster, video games) to objects not considered stereotypical of computer science (e.g., nature poster, phone books) was sufficient to boost female undergraduates’ interest in computer science to the level of their male peers. Further investigation revealed that the stereotypical broadcast a masculine stereotype that discouraged women’s sense of ambient belonging and subsequent interest in the environment (Studies 2, 3, and 4) but had no similar effect on men (Studies 3, 4). This masculine stereotype prevented women’s interest from developing even in environments entirely populated by other women (Study 2). Objects can thus come to broadcast stereotypes of a group, which in turn can deter people who do not identify with these stereotypes from joining that group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextual neglect, self-evaluation, and the frog-pond effect.

Social comparisons entail not only information about one’s standing in a social group (intragroup or local comparison) but also information about the standing of the group in comparison to other groups (intergroup or general comparison). In Studies 1–3, the authors explored the relative impact of intergroup and intragroup comparisons on self-evaluations and affect. While intragroup comparison feedback consistently impacted self-evaluations and affect, intergroup comparison information exerted a significant impact only when intragroup comparison information was unavailable. The authors refer to this general tendency as contextual neglect. Studies 4 and 5 showed that contextual neglect is due primarily to the fact that low-level, local comparison information displaces or supersedes the effect of higher level, general comparison data and that people clearly recognize the superior diagnosticity of higher level comparisons while continuing to rely on small, haphazard sample data to evaluate their ability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reconciling the complexity of human development with the reality of legal policy: Reply to Fischer, Stein, and Heikkinen (2009).

The authors respond to both the general and specific concerns raised in Fischer, Stein, and Heikkinen’s (see record 2009-18110-002) commentary on their article (Steinberg, Cauffman, Woolard, Graham, & Banich) (see record 2009-18110-001), in which they drew on studies of adolescent development to justify the American Psychological Association’s positions in two Supreme Court cases involving the construction of legal age boundaries. In response to Fischer et al.’s general concern that the construction of bright-line age boundaries is inconsistent with the fact that development is multifaceted, variable across individuals, and contextually conditioned, the authors argue that the only logical alternative suggested by that perspective is impractical and unhelpful in a legal context. In response to Fischer et al.’s specific concerns that their conclusion about the differential timetables of cognitive and psychosocial maturity is merely an artifact of the variables, measures, and methods they used, the authors argue that, unlike the alternatives suggested by Fischer et al., their choices are aligned with the specific capacities under consideration in the two cases. The authors reaffirm their position that there is considerable empirical evidence that adolescents demonstrate adult levels of cognitive capability several years before they evince adult levels of psychosocial maturity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Objectivity and science: Reply to Kukla.

The present journal has published several articles whose authors argue for a new, collectivistic and socially aware approach both to social science and science in general. A. Kukla (see record 1983-20002-001) has joined the proponents of this position and furthers their arguments by maintaining that empirical science is logically incoherent. The authors question some of the basic assumptions underlying Kukla's thesis and suggest that science is a communal process by which objectivity is achieved. Kukla's introduction of the concept of "epistomological privilege" may be seen to be particularly inappropriate to the pursuit of science. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assumptions and Consequences of Treating Providers in Therapy Studies as Fixed Versus Random Effects: Reply to Crits-Christoph, Tu, and Gallop (2003) and Serlin, Wampold, and Levin (2003).

In their comments on the authors' article (see record 2003-10163-009), R. C. Serlin, B. E. Wampold, and J. R. Levin (see record 2003-10163-011) and P. Crits-Christoph, X. Tu, and R. Gallop (see record 2003-10163-010) took issue with the authors' suggestion to evaluate therapy studies with nested providers with a fixed model approach. In this rejoinder, the authors' comment on Serlin et al's critique by showing that their arguments do not apply, are based on misconceptions about the purpose and nature of statistical inference, or are based on flawed reasoning. The authors also comment on Crits-Christoph et al's critique by showing that the proposed approach is very similar to, but less inclusive than, their own suggestion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A conceptual pathways model to promote positive youth development in children raised by their grandparents.

The numbers of children raised by their grandparents are increasing. These alternate families often emerge following negative life events that result in high risk for adverse child outcomes. Modifications in the traditional roles and relationships of grandparent and child may exacerbate stressors experienced by both parties. The phenomenon has implications for professionals working with these children because these families are increasing in prevalence and research suggests students’ success in school depends on both the home and school environments. Preventing problem behaviors associated with these families and promoting the children’s positive developmental trajectories entail understanding the family members’ unique needs and risks and identifying and accentuating their strengths, supports, and resources. In this paper, (a) the phenomenon of children raised by grandparents is reviewed, (b) positive youth development is advanced as a viable theoretical and applied developmental science framework to understand the children, and (c) a conceptual pathways model is described that can be used to promote their favorable school and life outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A disconfirmation bias in the evaluation of arguments.

Two experiments provided evidence for a disconfirmation bias in argument evaluation such that arguments incompatible with prior beliefs are scrutinized longer, subjected to more extensive refutational analyses, and consequently are judged to be weaker than arguments compatible with prior beliefs. The idea that people are unable to evaluate evidence independently of prior beliefs has been documented elsewhere, including in the classic study by C. G. Lord, L. Ross, and M. R. Lepper (see record 1981-05421-001) . The present findings contribute to this literature by specifying the processes by which prior beliefs affect the evaluation of evidence. The authors compare the disconfirmation model to several other models of how prior beliefs influence current judgments and present data that provide support for the disconfirmation model. Results indicate that whether a person's prior belief is accompanied by emotional conviction affects the magnitude and form of the disconfirmation bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The utility of the reasonable woman legal standard in hostile environment sexual harassment cases: A multimethod, multistudy examination.

The case of Ellison v. Brady (1991) was a landmark decision in establishing a new legal standard-the reasonable woman standard-for evaluating hostile environment allegations of sexual harassment and in relying, albeit indirectly, on social science evidence to support its decision. The authors review the legal standard in sexual harassment law, and the legal arguments and social science evidence underlying Ellison. The new standard could affect judgments broadly by sensitizing jurors to the situation of a female plaintiff, or it could affect judgments selectively by sensitizing only those people who might otherwise be especially insensitive to her situation. Five studies that focus on the effect of the reasonable woman standard on people's assessments of hostile environment sexual harassment indicate that the reasonable woman standard has modest, if any, effects on the judgments studied. Implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple social identities and stereotype threat: Imbalance, accessibility, and working memory.

In 4 experiments, the authors showed that concurrently making positive and negative self-relevant stereotypes available about performance in the same ability domain can eliminate stereotype threat effects. Replicating past work, the authors demonstrated that introducing negative stereotypes about women’s math performance activated participants’ female social identity and hurt their math performance (i.e., stereotype threat) by reducing working memory. Moving beyond past work, it was also demonstrated that concomitantly presenting a positive self-relevant stereotype (e.g., college students are good at math) increased the relative accessibility of females’ college student identity and inhibited their gender identity, eliminating attendant working memory deficits and contingent math performance decrements. Furthermore, subtle manipulations in questions presented in the demographic section of a math test eliminated stereotype threat effects that result from women reporting their gender before completing the test. This work identifies the motivated processes through which people’s social identities became active in situations in which self-relevant stereotypes about a stigmatized group membership and a nonstigmatized group membership were available. In addition, it demonstrates the downstream consequences of this pattern of activation on working memory and performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Model inference or model selection: Discussion of Klugkist, Laudy, and Hoijtink (2005).

I. Klugkist, O. Laudy, and H. Hoijtink (2005) presented a Bayesian approach to analysis of variance models with inequality constraints. Constraints may play 2 distinct roles in data analysis. They may represent prior information that allows more precise inferences regarding parameter values, or they may describe a theory to be judged against the data. In the latter case, the authors emphasized the use of Bayes factors and posterior model probabilities to select the best theory. One difficulty is that interpretation of the posterior model probabilities depends on which other theories are included in the comparison. The posterior distribution of the parameters under an unconstrained model allows one to quantify the support provided by the data for inequality constraints without requiring the model selection framework. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Applying the science of learning: Evidence-based principles for the design of multimedia instruction.

During the last 100 years, a major accomplishment of psychology has been the development of a science of learning aimed at understanding how people learn. In attempting to apply the science of learning, a central challenge of psychology and education is the development of a science of instruction aimed at understanding how to present material in ways that help people learn. The author provides an overview of how the design of multimedia instruction can be informed by the science of learning and the science of instruction, which yields 10 principles of multimedia instructional design that are grounded in theory and based on evidence. Overall, the relationship between the science of learning and the science of instruction is reciprocal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology’s role in mathematics and science education.

Improving mathematics and science education in the United States has been a matter of national concern for over half a century. Psychology has a vital role to play in this enterprise. In this article, the authors review the kinds of contributions that psychology can make in four areas: (a) early understanding of mathematics, (b) understanding of science, (c) social and motivational aspects of involvement in mathematics and science, and (d) assessment of learning in mathematics and science. They also examine challenges to psychology’s playing a central and constructive role and make recommendations for overcoming those challenges. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Criticality is perilous.

This essay reviews four longer arguments regarding the status of critical thinking on psychology. The commentary understands criticality as somehow sitting at the edge of theory itself. Given Psychology's perpetual identity crisis, the question of its edges and thus where criticality should nibble is brought to bear on the basic premises of the paper. Two of the papers are addressed in terms of the implied metapsychology they would presuppose and where that might break down (Teo's understanding of trauma). Two essays are addressed in terms of being a form of reading: one founded in adumbrations of desire and the other in a faith in science. The authors are asked if their work might not be informed by recent trends philosophy of science and through particular psychoanalytic lenses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Living with a concealable stigmatized identity: The impact of anticipated stigma, centrality, salience, and cultural stigma on psychological distress and health.

The current research provides a framework for understanding how concealable stigmatized identities impact people’s psychological well-being and health. The authors hypothesize that increased anticipated stigma, greater centrality of the stigmatized identity to the self, increased salience of the identity, and possession of a stigma that is more strongly culturally devalued all predict heightened psychological distress. In Study 1, the hypotheses were supported with a sample of 300 participants who possessed 13 different concealable stigmatized identities. Analyses comparing people with an associative stigma to those with a personal stigma showed that people with an associative stigma report less distress and that this difference is fully mediated by decreased anticipated stigma, centrality, and salience. Study 2 sought to replicate the findings of Study 1 with a sample of 235 participants possessing concealable stigmatized identities and to extend the model to predicting health outcomes. Structural equation modeling showed that anticipated stigma and cultural stigma were directly related to self-reported health outcomes. Discussion centers on understanding the implications of intraindividual processes (anticipated stigma, identity centrality, and identity salience) and an external process (cultural devaluation of stigmatized identities) for mental and physical health among people living with a concealable stigmatized identity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)