"Illusory correlation in the perception of group attitudes": Corrections to Spears et al.

Reports an error in "Illusory correlation in the perception of group attitudes" by Russell Spears, Joop van der Pligt and J. Richard Eiser (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1985[Apr], Vol 48[4], 863-875). In the article, several important corrections and additions were not made in the course of the production process. The corrected entries are included in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1985-20035-001.) 126 undergraduates with pro- or anti-attitudes toward nuclear power and 15 local members of a campaign for nuclear disarmament viewed opinion statements supposedly made by residents of 2 towns. One town was larger and statements from it occurred frequently, the other was small and statements from it were infrequent. Statements expressed either pro- or anti-attitudes to the building of a nuclear power station, in which one position was in a majority over the other. Despite the fact that the proportion of pro- and anti-statements was the same for both towns, it was predicted that the most statistically infrequent category, minority position/small town, would appear most distinctive and receive greatest encoding, leading Ss to overrepresent this category. It was also hypothesized that attitude-congruent positions would appear more salient than others because of their self-relevance, resulting in enhanced illusory correlation for minority-congruent attitude holders (distinctiveness plus salience). Futhermore, it was predicted that salience and therefore illusory correlation would increase as a function of attitude extremity for these Ss. All 3 predictions were supported, replicating the findings of D. L. Hamilton and R. K. Gifford (1976) that distinctiveness, operationalized as statistical infrequency, mediated an illusory correlation effect. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Illusory correlation in the perception of group attitudes.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 49(5) of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (see record 2008-10980-001). In the article, several important corrections and additions were not made in the course of the production process. The corrected entries are included in the erratum.] 126 undergraduates with pro- or anti-attitudes toward nuclear power and 15 local members of a campaign for nuclear disarmament viewed opinion statements supposedly made by residents of 2 towns. One town was larger and statements from it occurred frequently, the other was small and statements from it were infrequent. Statements expressed either pro- or anti-attitudes to the building of a nuclear power station, in which one position was in a majority over the other. Despite the fact that the proportion of pro- and anti-statements was the same for both towns, it was predicted that the most statistically infrequent category, minority position/small town, would appear most distinctive and receive greatest encoding, leading Ss to overrepresent this category. It was also hypothesized that attitude-congruent positions would appear more salient than others because of their self-relevance, resulting in enhanced illusory correlation for minority-congruent attitude holders (distinctiveness plus salience). Futhermore, it was predicted that salience and therefore illusory correlation would increase as a function of attitude extremity for these Ss. All 3 predictions were supported, replicating the findings of D. L. Hamilton and R. K. Gifford (1976) that distinctiveness, operationalized as statistical infrequency, mediated an illusory correlation effect. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of own attitude on polarization of judgment.

Previous research has shown that the more favorable a group's attitude, the more polarized its judgments of others' attitude statements. Two experiments that surveyed 298 undergraduates on the issue of abortion suggested no satisfactory explanation for the phenomenon. Response distributions revealed that judgments by neutral and "anti" raters were more likely to be bimodal than judgments by "pro" raters. This bimodality resulted in a reduction of polarization for anti and neutral groups. When only normatively correct responses were considered, differential polarization between anti and pro groups largely disappeared. A final experiment with 65 undergraduates indicated that a certain proportion of raters misinterpreted the task as one requiring the rating of their own rather than the statements' attitude. In consequence, anti raters, and to some extent neutral raters, produce response inversions. Results are consistent with a semantic interpretation (accentuation theory) under the assumption that pro and anti scale labels differ in connotation across rating groups. They are also consistent with the perceptual interpretation (assimilation-contrast theory) that neutral raters are more likely to assimilate extreme statements to their own attitude position. Researchers need to take more care that respondents understand the requirements of experimental tasks and that data reflect unimodal response tendencies across conditions. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of a communication on attitude change and scale judgments.

"The purposes of this study were to assess the effects of a persuasive communication on attitude change and on judgments of the scale values of opinion items and to examine the relationship between attitude change and evaluations of the communication. An experimental group of subjects was exposed to a communication advocating abolution of capital punishment, after which they evaluated the communication, judged the scale values of 36 opinion statements, and revealed their own attitudes by responding to 20 opinion items… . The major results are: The communication changed attitudes in the direction advocated. But the groups were alike in their judgments of the scale values of the related opinion statements. Hence, a change in scale judgments is not a necessary condition for attitude change." From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:3GD33W. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Illusory correlation: A further exploration of Chapman's paradigm.

Even though the phenomenon of illusory correlation first researched by L. Chapman (see record 1967-08174-001) has been demonstrated in a variety of studies, little has been done to show that this bias cannot be reduced or eliminated by training. The present study addresses this issue with 4 groups of 15 undergraduates each. The 1st group replicated a study by L. Chapman and J. Chapman (see record 1969-13004-001) with an equal association of all valid Wheeler signs and invalid signs and statements of the patients' purported problem. Group 2 had valid signs presented 100% of the time and invalid signs presented 50% of the time. Group 3 Ss had special pretraining against illusory correlation, with 50% presentation of valid signs, and Group 4 also had the special pretraining, with 100% presentationof the valid Wheeler signs. It was predicted that Groups 3 and 4 would show the least amount of illusory correlation. This hypothesis was not confirmed. However, the Chapman finding that Ss predominantly associated the concept of anality with preconceived problems of homosexuality was partly replicated. Ss also appeared to create their own illusory correlate. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accentuation theory and the judgment of attitudes: Exploring possible limiting conditions.

To investigate the effects of Ss' attitudes and of response language on judgments of attitude statements, 62 university students rated 20 statements on the issue of the use of hallucinogenic drugs in terms of personal acceptability, and on 4 other rating scales. Two types of scales were used: A+ scales, where the antidrug end was marked by an evaluatively positive label and the prodrug end by an evaluatively negative label; and P+ scales, where the antidrug end was negatively labeled and the prodrug end positively labeled. In Condition 1, Ss were given only A+ scales; in Condition 2, only P+ scales; and in Conditions 3 and 4, 2 A+ and 2 P+ scales. Results confirm the accentuation theory prediction that "anti"-Ss should give more polarized ratings than "pro" Ss on A+ scales and less polarized ratings than "pro" Ss on P+ scales. This was so regardless of whether scale type was a between-Ss factor (comparison of Conditions 1 and 2) or, as in previous studies, a within-Ss factor (Conditions 3 and 4). Previous findings of a tendency for more anti ratings overall on A+ scales, and more pro ratings on P+ scales, were contradicted but it is argued that this may be due to Ss finding the statements mainly unacceptable. Other findings concern choice of adjectives to describe similar and dissimilar others. (French abstract) (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The structural relationship between attitude and behavior statements from the unfolding perspective.

Empirical correlations between attitudes and behaviors toward a common construct are generally poor. This suggests that attitudes and behaviors do not reflect the same dimension. An alternative hypothesis proposes that these are on the same continuum but reflect different levels of intensity. In this article, a recently developed single peaked response model, consistent with Thurstone's original methods for measuring attitudes, was used to analyze the responses of young adolescents to statements concerning attitude and behavior toward the environment. It was found that the behavior statements were at systematically different locations from the attitude statements on the same continuum and that their relationship was easily understood as consistent even though they implied a low correlation between attitude and behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Within-target illusory correlations and the formation of context-dependent attitudes.

Two experiments explored the formation of context-dependent attitudes about a single social target. One such mechanism for the development of differential attitudes toward a target in different contexts is illusory correlation formation. It was proposed that within-target illusory correlations (i.e., perceiving unwarranted associations between salient target behaviors and distinctive domains in which the target is observed) can result in biased evaluations of a social target in different domains (e.g., home vs. work). When memory-based (vs. on-line) judgments were induced, perceivers formed context-dependent attitudes for both group (Experiment I) and individual (Experiment 2) targets. These findings are consistent with theories regarding multiply categorizable attitude objects. Further, they suggest that some apparent discrepancies between attitudes and behavior may reflect holding multiple context-dependent attitudes about social targets. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schematic effects of social attitudes on information processing and recall.

Examined the proposal that social attitudes have schematic effects on the processing of attitude-relevant information. It was predicted that (a) such attitudes schemata would be bipolar, with information organized around "agree" and "disagree" poles; (b) attitude-relevant information would be more easily processed and, hence, judged more readily if it fits these schematic poles; and (c) schematic fit would also facilitate recall of attitude-relevant information. 23 undergraduates were asked to make pro/anti and agree/disagree ratings of 54 attitude statements on 3 issues. Ratings and decision times were recorded. The next day, Ss engaged in a free-recall task. Both schematic hypotheses were supported: Faster judgments and higher recall were found with items that were extremely agreed or disagreed with than with items that elicited less extreme agree/disagree ratings. It is shown that these effects are not due to idiosyncracies of either individual items or individual Ss. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Illusory correlation in impression formation: Variations in the shared distinctiveness effect as a function of the distinctive person's age, race, and sex.

Examined in 3 parts with 96 White undergraduates, the nature of illusory correlation effects when associative connections and shared infrequency operated simultaneously. When undesirable behaviors were both infrequent and also associatively linked to a stimulus person's demographic group, there was an illusory correlation between membership in an infrequently appearing group and performance of infrequent, undesirable behaviors. More specifically, stimulus persons who were Black, old, or of the opposite sex from the S were rated more negatively when their demographic group appeared infrequently. Different illusory correlations were obtained when infrequency and associative links acted in opposition, undesirable behaviors being infrequent and desirable behaviors being associatively linked. More specifically, stimulus persons who were White, young, or of the same sex as the S were rated more positively when their demographic group appeared infrequently. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pluralistic ignorance and alcohol use on campus: Some consequences of misperceiving the social norm.

Four studies examined the relation between college students' own attitudes toward alcohol use and their estimates of the attitudes of their peers. All studies found widespread evidence of pluralistic ignorance: Students believed that they were more uncomfortable with campus alcohol practices than was the average student. Study 2 demonstrated this perceived self–other difference also with respect to one's friends. Study 3 tracked attitudes toward drinking over the course of a semester and found gender differences in response to perceived deviance: Male students shifted their attitudes over time in the direction of what they mistakenly believed to be the norm, whereas female students showed no such attitude changes. Study 4 found that students' perceived deviance correlated with various measures of campus alienation, even though that deviance was illusory. The implications of these results for general issues of norm estimation and responses to perceived deviance are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudes, polarization, and diagnosticity: Exploring the effect of affect.

Examines the various judgmental effects of attitude intensity or commitment. 28 feminist and 26 nonfeminist undergraduates estimated the prevalence of both pro- and antifeminist attitudes in various segments of the population. They then estimated the prevalence of various personality traits and demographic characteristics among others with either pro- or antifeminist attitudes. In accord with a "false consensus" hypothesis, both S groups perceived profeminist attitudes to be more common among all population groups. In addition, however, committed Ss viewed the population as significantly more polarized on the women's rights issue. Relative to the remaining Ss, committed feminists overestimated the prevalence of both pro- and antifeminist attitudes. Although both S groups found information concerning others' position on women's rights to be highly diagnostic of personality traits and attitudes, committed feminists saw this information as significantly more diagnostic for both pro and anti others. Implications for both attribution and attitude theories are discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When ratee satisfaction influences performance evaluations: A case of illusory correlation.

M. T. Iaffaldano and P. Muchinsky's (see record 1985-21607-001) meta-analysis suggested that the satisfaction–performance relation constitutes an illusory correlation. Two experiments are reported that investigated whether this illusory correlation may systematically bias performance evaluations when ratee satisfaction levels are known. In Experiment 1, students who were told that an instructor was satisfied rated his performance more favorably than students who were told that he was dissatisfied. In Experiment 2, subjects performed an in-basket task and completed a satisfaction questionnaire prior to evaluating a ratee's performance on a similar in-basket task. Subjects appraised a satisfied ratee more favorably than they appraised a dissatisfied ratee. In addition, subjects provided with bogus feedback indicating that their task satisfaction was high evaluated their own performance more favorably than subjects provided with dissatisfaction feedback. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A follow-up study influence of individual opinion on the construction of an attitude scale.

The present study was done in order to more or less replicate an earlier study by Hinckley (see 7: 1179) on the relationship between individual opinion and the construction of an attitude scale. Using Thurstone's technique of attitude scale construction, 2 sets of scale values for 114 statements were obtained from the sorting of 2 groups of Ss. The 2 groups were separated on the basis of their attitudes toward Negroes and the problem was to compare the sortings and scale values of Group I with the sortings and scale values of Group II. The results of this study were as follows: (a) the correlation coefficient between the scale values of Group I and the scale values of Group II was .9437. (b) This correlation of .94 can be compared with the correlation coefficient computed in the earlier study of .98. (c) There was no tendency for the statements to be placed in more extreme positions by either group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accentuation and perspective in attitudinal judgment.

Studied 185 15–16 yr old high school students' and 73 undergraduates' judgments of statements concerning the nonmedical use of drugs as affected by judges' attitudes toward the issue, the range of items presented, and value connotations. As predicted by accentuation theory, prodrug judges gave more polarized ratings on scales where the "pro" end was more positively labeled (P+), and antidrug Ss gave more polarized ratings on scales where the "anti" end was the more positive (A+); this replicated previous findings. Also, as predicted, more polarized ratings were given on P+ than on A+ scales when the item range was aborted at the pro end and vice versa when it was aborted at the anti end. It is argued that judgment does not necessarily depend on the total subjective range of items that a judge takes into account (the original definition of perspective) but rather on the perceived appropriateness of a given scale to a given region of the underlying continuum. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Scale judgments of triplets of opinion statements.

115 students at Boston University evaluated the attitude positions of anonymous sources when different sets of 3 opinion statements were attributed to them. The triplets varied in the extent to which their constituent statements reflected strongly favorable to strongly unfavorable sentiments in regard to capital punishment. The results indicate that the scale judgment of a triplet and confidence concerning judgment are affected by the mean of the scale values of the component statements and by the dispersion of the scale values around the mean. The extreme triplets are judged even more pro or con than any of their constituents. The judges' own positions on the issue did not affect their evaluations of the triplets. (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of public and private self-consciousness on the public expression of personal beliefs.

Examined the joint effects of private and public self-consciousness (SC) on attitudinal consistency. 113 male undergraduates (categorized as high and low private and high and low public SC) reported their own attitudes toward punishment. Later, each S was asked to write an essay in which he restated his attitude. Immediately prior to writing the essay, S learned that he would also be discussing his opinion with either a partner who held an attitude opposite to his own or a partner whose attitude was unknown. As predicted, the attitudes expressed in the essays of high public SC Ss were more moderate than those expressed by low public SC Ss. One effect of this moderation strategy was to lower the correlation between privately held and publicly expressed beliefs among Ss high in public SC. In contrast, attitudinal consistency was substantial among Ss who were low in public and high in private SC. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An ordering-theoretic analysis of attitudes toward disabled persons.

Administered 15 items of the Attitude Toward Disabled Persons Scale, Form 0 to 150 university students. The resultant nonlinear hierarchy of contingent relationships among the attitude statements illustrates that order analysis provides insight to the structure of attitudes and the dynamics of attitude expression. It is recommended that subsequent research focus on the relationships among fundamental attitude domains through order analysis of S responses to sets of carefully selected attitude statements. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mood and the formation of attitudes.

Conducted 2 studies to examine how mood influences the attitudes formed by 72 undergraduates (Study 1) and 45 undergraduates (Study 2). After reading the Velten mood induction cards, Ss were presented with positive and negative belief statements about an unfamiliar attitude object. Measures of attitudes, statements recalled, and evaluations of statements were taken. In both studies, mood was shown to influence attitudes. Moreover, in Study 1, Ss evaluated both positive and negative statements in line with their mood. These results are consistent with the research of D. M. Mackie and L. T. Worth (see record 1989-31851-001) on the effects of positive mood on persuasion and suggest that negative mood may also operate to encourage the use of heuristic processing of information. No evidence was found for a mood-congruity effect in either study. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)