Effect of Slag Composition on the Crystallization Kinetics of Synthetic CaO-SiO<Subscript>2</Subscript>-Al<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>3</Subscript>-MgO Slags

The crystallization kinetics of CaO-SiO₂-Al₂O₃-MgO (CSAM) slags was studied with the aid of single hot thermocouple technique (SHTT). Kinetic parameters such as the Avrami exponent (n), rate coefficient (K), and effective activation energy of crystallization (E _A ) were obtained by kinetic analysis of data obtained from in situ observation of glassy to crystalline transformation and image analysis. Also, the dependence of nucleation and growth rates of crystalline phases were quantified as a function of time, temperature, and slag basicity. Together with the observations of crystallization front, they facilitated establishing the dominant mechanisms of crystallization. In an attempt to predict crystallization rate under non-isothermal conditions, a mathematical model was developed that employs the rate data of isothermal transformation. The model was validated by reproducing an experimental continuous cooling transformation diagram purely from isothermal data.     

Deformation Microstructure and Deformation-Induced Martensite in Austenitic Fe-Cr-Ni Alloys Depending on Stacking Fault Energy

The deformation microstructure of austenitic Fe-18Cr-(10-12)Ni (wt pct) alloys with low stacking fault energies, estimated by first-principles calculations, was investigated after cold rolling. The ?-martensite was found to play a key role in the nucleation of α′-martensite, and at low SFE, ? formation is frequent and facilitates nucleation of α′ at individual shear bands, whereas shear band intersections become the dominant nucleation sites for α′ when SFE increases and mechanical twinning becomes frequent.     

The Interface of TiB<Subscript>2</Subscript> and Al<Subscript>3</Subscript>Ti in Molten Aluminum

In the grain refinement of aluminum, Al₃Ti and TiB₂ particles are introduced to reduce the casting grain size down to 200 micrometer level, which makes cold working possible. The particles are brought in by the addition of Al-Ti-B-type master alloys. It is generally believed that TiB₂ particles are stable and nucleate α-Al grains in solidification in the presence of titanium in solution from the dissolution of Al₃Ti particles in the master alloys. The titanium in solution either forms Al₃Ti layers on the surface of TiB₂ particles to promote the nucleation of α-Al grains or remains as solute to restrict the growth of α-Al grains in solidification. However, a consensus on a grain refinement mechanism is still to be reached due to the lack of direct observation of the three phases in castings. This paper presents finding of the TiB₂/Al₃Ti interfaces in an Al-Ti-B master alloy. It demonstrates a strong epitaxial growth of Al₃Ti on the surface of TiB₂ particles, a sign of the formation of an Al₃Ti layer on the surface of TiB₂ particles in grain refinement practice. The Al₃Ti layer has a crystal coherency with α-Al and hence offers a substrate for heterogeneous nucleation of α-Al grains. However, the layer must be dynamic to avoid the formation of compounded Al₃Ti and TiB₂ particles leading to the loss of efficiency in grain refinement.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">In Situ</Emphasis> Investigation of the Evolution of Lattice Strain and Stresses in Austenite and Martensite During Quenching and Tempering of Steel

Energy dispersive synchrotron X-ray diffraction was applied to investigate in situ the evolution of lattice strains and stresses in austenite and martensite during quenching and tempering of a soft martensitic stainless steel. In one experiment, lattice strains in austenite and martensite were measured in situ in the direction perpendicular to the sample surface during an austenitization, quenching, and tempering cycle. In a second experiment, the sin² ψ method was applied in situ during the austenite-to-martensite transformation to distinguish between macro- and phase-specific micro-stresses and to follow the evolution of these stresses during transformation. Martensite formation evokes compressive stress in austenite that is balanced by tensile stress in martensite. Tempering to 748 K (475 °C) leads to partial relaxation of these stresses. Additionally, data reveal that (elastic) lattice strain in austenite is not hydrostatic but hkl dependent, which is ascribed to plastic deformation of this phase during martensite formation and is considered responsible for anomalous behavior of the 200 _γ reflection.     

Importance of Non-uniform Boundary Migration for Recrystallization Kinetics

Recrystallization kinetics is studied by three characterization methods: post-mortem electron microscopy, in situ three-dimensional X-ray diffraction (3DXRD), and ex situ electron microscopy. Cold-rolled copper is used as a model material. The post-mortem analysis shows that the average migration velocity of unimpinged recrystallizing boundaries decreases strongly with annealing time, leading to a low Avrami exponent. For individual grains, the in situ 3DXRD measurement reveals that the growth rates decrease significantly shortly after nucleation. This is explained by the ex situ characterizations, which show that different segments of the recrystallizing boundaries migrate with significantly different velocities, and some boundaries, although unimpinged, remain stationary. This non-uniform migration of recrystallizing boundaries leads to an amoeba-like growth, and is proposed to be responsible for the decrease of the average boundary migration velocity, because the fraction of slowly moving/stationary boundaries increases during the recrystallization. Reasons for stationary boundaries are discussed based on a quantitative analysis of the local deformed microstructure. It is concluded that non-uniform boundary migration has a significant influence on recrystallization kinetics and needs to be included in recrystallization models.     

Atomic Distance Tuning Effect for Nucleation in Liquid Iron

Liquid structural evolution of iron with various oxides was tracked from above liquidus to undercooling temperatures using an in situ high-energy X-ray diffraction method. The icosahedral-like orders and its enhancement with the decreasing temperature in all the liquids investigated suggest that icosahedral-like orders are not the sole reasons responsible for the variation of undercooling. The reduction of nearest-neighbor distance (r₁) tuned by catalyzers contributes to the enhanced nucleation behavior of liquid iron.     

Diffusion of copper along the grain boundaries in aluminum

The grain boundary diffusion (GBD) of copper in aluminum is investigated in the range t = 300?400°C. Investigations were performed on a scanning electron microscope equipped with an attachment for electron probe X-ray microanalysis. The triple product sδD _gb (where s is the segregation coefficient, δ is the width of the grain boundary, and D _gb is the GBD coefficient) was calculated by the Fisher criterion using two methods (namely, the copper concentration in the grain boundary, depending on the penetration depth, was determined and the angles in the vertex of the concentration profile was measured using an optical microscope). In the first case, sδD _gb was 5.1 × 10^?11 exp(?102/(RT)) m³/s; in the second case it was 1.4 × 10^?11 exp(?94/(RT)) m³/s. The obtained results are compared with innumerous literature data.     

Evolution of Inclusions During the 1473 K (1200 °C) Heating Process of EH36 Shipbuilding Steel

Evolution behaviors of inclusions of EH36 shipbuilding steel during 1473 K (1200 °C) heating have been studied in conjunction with ex situ scanning electron microscope (SEM) examination and in situ confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) observations. It has been found that Al-Ca-O-S complex inclusions dominate the particles in the cast billet. However, TiN inclusions are profusely populated after heating. Moreover, possible strategies governing austenite growth are offered here.     

Kinetics of the fcc → hcp Phase Transformation in Cu-Ge Solid Solutions Upon Isothermal Aging

The kinetics of the ζ-phase formation from a supersaturated α-Cu(Ge) solid solution (i.e., transformation from the fcc crystal structure to the hcp crystal structure) containing 10.8 at. pct Ge [at isothermal temperatures of 573 K, 613 K, and 653 K (300 °C, 340 °C, and 380 °C)] were studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD) for phase fraction determination. Both in situ and ex situ annealing experiments were performed. The transformation kinetics were modeled on the basis of a versatile modular model. The transformation kinetics complied with a site-saturation nucleation mode and strongly anisotropic interface-controlled growth mode in association with a corresponding impingement mode: diffusion of Ge (towards the stacking faults, SFs) does not control the transformation rate. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) investigations showed that segregation of Ge at the stacking faults (SFs) takes place (relatively fast) prior to the structural transformation (fcc → hcp).     

Correlation dependence of the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient of metallic aluminum on its heat capacity

The correlation between the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient β(T) and the heat capacity C(T) of aluminum is considered in detail. It is shown that a clear correlation is observed in a significantly wider temperature range, up to the melting temperature of the metal, along with the low-temperature range where it is linear. The significant deviation of dependence β(C) from the low-temperature linear behavior is observed up to the point where the heat capacity achieves the classical Dulong–Petit limit of 3R (R is the universal gas constant).     

Aging Temperature Dependence of <Emphasis Type="Italic">α</Emphasis>″-Martensite Decomposition Mechanism in Ti-Al-Fe-Si Alloy

The mechanism by which α″-martensite decomposes in Ti-4Al-4Fe-0.25Si-0.1O alloy is found to change depending on the aging temperature, with Fe-rich α first transforming in twins of α″-martensite. As the aging temperature increases, Fe is segregated at the boundaries between α″ and α. At temperatures >?773 K, the Fe-segregated boundaries provide a nucleation site for B2-structured TiFe intermetallic compounds. This process of α″-martensite decomposition is described as follows: α″?+?α″_Twin?→?α″_Fe-rich?+?α_Fe-rich,V1?→?α_Fe-lean,V2?+?α_Fe-lean,V1?+?TiFe.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">In situ</Emphasis> Observation of Calcium Oxide Treatment of Inclusions in Molten Steel by Confocal Microscopy

Calcium treatment of aluminum killed steel was observed in situ using high-temperature confocal scanning laser microscope (HT-CSLM). This technique along with a novel experimental design enables continuous observation of clustering behavior of inclusions before and after the calcium treatment. Results show that the increase in average inclusion size in non-calcium-treated condition was much faster compared to calcium-treated condition. Results also show that the magnitude of attractive capillary force between inclusion particles in non-treated condition was about 10^?15 N for larger particles (10 µm) and 10^?16 N for smaller particles (5 µm) and acting length of force was about 30 µm. In the case of calcium-treated condition, the magnitude and acting length of force was reduced to 10^?16 N and 10 µm, respectively, for particles of all sizes. This change in attractive capillary attractive force is due to change in inclusion morphology from solid alumina disks to liquid lens particles during calcium treatment.     

Effect of Boron Addition on the Mechanical Wear Resistance of Additively Manufactured Biomedical Titanium Alloy

The effect of the addition of boron to the biomedical alloy Ti-13Nb-13Zr (TNZ) has been studied. A noticeable change between TNZ and TNZ-0.5B has been observed both in terms of morphology, and size scale of the α precipitates along with the in situ formation of TiB precipitates during laser processing. These contrasting microstructures are responsible for differences in mechanical hardness and sliding wear properties and mechanisms.     

Effect of Microstructure and Alloy Chemistry on Hydrogen Embrittlement of Precipitation-Hardened Ni-Based Alloys

The sensitivity to hydrogen embrittlement (HE) has been studied in respect of precipitation size distributions in two nickel-based superalloys: Alloy 718 (UNS N07718) and Alloy 945X (UNS N09946). Quantitative microstructure analysis was carried out by the combination of scanning and transmission electron microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS). While Alloy 718 is mainly strengthened by γ″, and therefore readily forms intergranular δ phase, Alloy 945X has been designed to avoid δ formation by reducing Nb levels providing high strength through a combination of γ′ and γ″. Slow strain rate tensile tests were carried out for different microstructural conditions in air and after cathodic hydrogen (H) charging. HE sensitivity was determined based on loss of elongation due to the H uptake in comparison to elongation to failure in air. Results showed that both alloys exhibited an elevated sensitivity to HE. Fracture surfaces of the H precharged material showed quasi-cleavage and transgranular cracks in the H-affected region, while ductile failure was observed toward the center of the sample. The crack origins observed on the H precharged samples exhibited quasi-cleavage with slip traces at high magnification. The sensitivity is slightly reduced for Alloy 718, by coarsening γ″ and reducing the overall strength of the alloy. However, on further coarsening of γ″, which promotes continuous decoration of grain boundaries with δ phase, the embrittlement index rose again indicating a change of hydrogen embrittlement mechanism from hydrogen-enhanced local plasticity (HELP) to hydrogen-enhanced decohesion embrittlement (HEDE). In contrast, Alloy 945X displayed a strong correlation between strength, based on precipitation size and embrittlement index, due to the absence of any significant formation of δ phase for the investigated microstructures. For the given test parameters, Alloy 945X did not display any reduced sensitivity to HE compared with Alloy 718 when considering high-strength conditions despite the absence of intergranular δ phase.     

Influence of hot isostatic pressing on the structure and properties of an innovative low-alloy high-strength aluminum cast alloy based on the Al–Zn–Mg–Cu–Ni–Fe system

Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) is applied for treatment of castings of innovative low-ally high-strength aluminum alloy, nikalin ATs6N0.5Zh based on the Al–Zn–Mg–Cu–Ni–Fe system. The influence of HIP on the structure and properties of castings is studied by means of three regimes of barometric treatment with different temperatures of isometric holding: t ₁ = 505 ± 2°C, p ₁ = 100 MPa, τ₁ = 3 h (HIP1); t ₂ = 525 ± 2°C, p ₂ = 100 MPa, τ₂ = 3 h (HIP2); and t ₃ = 545 ± 2°C, p ₃ = 100 MPa, τ₃ = 3 h (HIP3). It is established that high-temperature HIP leads to actually complete elimination of porosity and additional improvement of the morphology of second phases. Improved structure after HIP provides improvement properties, especially of plasticity. In particular, after heat treatment according of regime HIP2 + T4 (T4 is natural aging), the alloy plasticity is improved by about two times in comparison with the initial state (from ~6 to 12%). While applying regime HIP3 + T6 (T6 is artificial aging for reaching the maximum strength), the plasticity has improved by more than three times in comparison with the initial state, as after treatment according to regimes HIP1 + T6 and HIP2 + T6 (from ~1.2 to ~5.0%), which are characterized by a lower HIP temperature.     

Morphological Stability of <Emphasis Type="Italic">δ</Emphasis>-Ferrite/<Emphasis Type="Italic">γ</Emphasis> Interphase Boundary in Carbon Steel

The morphological changes of the δ-ferrite/γ interphase boundary have been observed in situ with a high-temperature confocal scanning laser microscope (HTCSLM) during δ/γ transformations (δ → γ and γ → δ) of Fe-0.06 wt pct C-0.6 wt pct Mn alloy, and a kinetic equation of morphological stability of δ-ferrite/γ interphase boundary has been established. Thereafter, the criterion expression for morphological stability of δ-ferrite/γ interphase boundary was established and discussed, and the critical migration speeds of δ-ferrite/γ interphase boundaries are calculated in Fe-C, Fe-Ni, and Fe-Cr alloys. The results indicate that the δ-ferrite/γ interphase boundary is very stable and nearly remains absolute planar all the time during γ → δ transformation in Fe-C alloy. The δ-ferrite/γ interphase boundary remains basically planar during δ → γ transformation when the migration speed is lower than 0.88 μm/s, and the interphase boundary will be unstable and exhibit a finger-like morphology when the migration speed is higher than 0.88 μm/s. The morphological stability of δ-ferrite/γ interphase boundary is primarily controlled by the interface energy and the solute concentration gradient at the front of the boundary. During the constant temperature phase transformation, an opposite temperature gradient on both sides of δ-ferrite/γ interphase boundary weakens the steady effect of the temperature gradient on the boundary. The theoretical analysis of the morphological stability of the δ-ferrite/γ interphase boundary is coincident with the observed experimental results utilizing the HTCSLM. There is a good agreement between the theoretical calculation of the critical moving velocities of δ-ferrite/γ interphase boundaries and the experimental results.     

Correlation of Tensile Properties and Strain Hardening Behavior with Martensite Volume Fraction in Dual-Phase Steels

In the present study, tensile properties, strain hardening and fracture behavior of dual-phase (DP) steels were correlated with martensite volume fraction (V _M ). A series of DP steels with different amounts of V _M (28–50 %) were produced by cold rolling and subsequent intercritical annealing of a ferrite-pearlite starting structure. Hardness and tensile tests results of DP steels showed that variation of hardness, uniform elongation and total elongation with V _M was linear and obeyed the rule of mixtures, whereas yield strength and ultimate tensile strength exhibited a nonlinear variation with V _M . Analysis of strain hardening behavior of DP steels by the Hollomon analysis showed two stages of strain hardening corresponding to ferrite deformation and co-deformation of ferrite and martensite, respectively. The strain hardening exponent of first stage (n _I ) increased with increasing V _M , while the strain hardening exponent of second stage (n _II ) as well as transition strain between the deformation stages decreased.     

Kinetics study on non-isothermal crystallization of Cu<Subscript>50</Subscript>Zr<Subscript>50</Subscript> metallic glass

In this paper, the crystallization kinetics of melt-spun Cu₅₀Zr₅₀ amorphous alloy ribbons has been investigated using differential scanning calorimetry. Moreover, the Kissinger, Ozawa and isoconversional approaches have been used to obtain the crystallization kinetic parameters. As shown in the results, the onset crystallization activation energy E _x is less than crystallization peak activation energy E _p. The local activation energy E _α increases at the crystallized volume fraction α < 0.2 and decreases at the rest, which suggests that crystallization process is increasingly hard (α < 0.2) at first, after which it become increasingly easy (α > 0.2). The nucleation activation energy E _nucleation is greater than grain growth activation energy E _growth, indicating that the nucleation is harder than growth. In terms of the local Avrami exponent n(α), it lies between 1.27 and 8, which means that crystallization mechanism in the non-isothermal crystallization is interface-controlled one- two- or three-dimensional growth with different nucleation rates.     

Procedure of calculation of lithium in intermediate products and aluminum

The procedure for calculating the amount of lithium in froth cryolite is suggested for monitoring the Li content in aluminum in those electrolysis shops where no introduction of a purpose additive of its carbonate into the electrolyte is anticipated. A content of 0.0001% Li in aluminum of shops B and C will be reached during the operation of one shop A for 2–3 months. It is calculated that an additional increase of the lithium content in aluminum in the shop with the use of Li₂CO₃ is possible due to Li ingress with flotation and regeneration cryolites, the bath removed from crucibles, and recycled cryolite. For example, an additional increase by 0.0001% in shop A for the operation of 720 baths with the use of lithium carbonate will be attained in 1 month.     

Stress-Induced Twinning and Phase Transformations during the Compression of a Ti-10V-3Fe-3Al Alloy

A metastable β Ti-10V-3Al-3Fe (wt pct) alloy containing different α phase fractions after thermo-mechanical processing was compressed to 0.4 strain. Detailed microstructure evaluation was carried out using high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy and electron back-scattering diffraction. Stress-induced β → α′′ and β → ω transformation products together with {332}〈113〉β and {112}〈111〉β twinning systems were simultaneously detected. The effects of β phase stability and strain rate on the preferential activation of these reactions were analyzed. With an increase in β phase stability, stress-induced phase transformations were restricted and {112}〈111〉β twinning was dominant. Alternatively, less stable β conditions or higher strain rates resulted in the dominance of the {332}〈113〉β twinning system and formation of secondary α′′ martensite.