Proposing a solution to India’s water crisis: ‘paradigm shift’ or pushing outdated concepts?

Abstract

This article is a critique of the report of the committee chaired by Dr Mihir Shah on restructuring the Central Water Commission and Central Ground Water Board of India. It shows that the recommendations of the committee are not based on any sound understanding of the federal nature of water administration in India, water-sector performance or the problems confronting it. The ‘paradigm shift’ in the suggested approach to water management is based on flawed analysis of the performance of surface irrigation systems and outdated concepts of irrigation efficiency, and reflects the professional bias of its members against large water infrastructure and wishful thinking about what schemes like aquifer mapping can achieve.     

Hazard identification framework for water utilities with application to the city of Xalapa,Mexico

Abstract:

There is a growing need for a comprehensive approach for assessing drinking water systems that enables managers and engineers to quickly address critical hazards that impact their water supply systems and plan for system improvements. A hazard identification framework for water utilities is developed and applied to the municipal water supply system at Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico, operated by the Comisión Municipal de Agua Potable y Saneamiento de Xalapa (CMAS Xalapa). The framework is designed to aid in the analysis of a water supply system from catchment to tap and consists of four components: system characterization, identification of hazards, assessment of the impacts of the major hazards, and determination of priority recommendations for system improvements. When the framework is applied to the CMAS Xalapa system, a number of significant hazardous events are identified including elevated turbidity events and high pressure surcharges. Recommendations for system improvements include increased data collection and analysis and enhanced management of control measures for mitigating the impacts of the hazards.     

Preliminary Assessment of Water Quality along the Red Sea Coast near Jeddah,Saudi Arabia

Abstract

This paper presents the results of preliminary assessment of water quality along Red Sea coast adjoining Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Jeddah is a major city with a population of over 2.6 million and an area 1,200 km^2.. To study the impacts, samples of the Red Sea were collected from 24 important locations near Jeddah and analyzed in the laboratory for various water quality parameters. These parameters included: biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), phosphorus, dissolved oxygen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrates, sulfates, total alkalinity, chlorides, and pH. The results of the study show considerable variations in water quality depending upon the location along the Red Sea coast. The BOD values in the sea water are negligible except in the Balad downtown lake near treatment plant where the values are quite high ranging from 51 to 812 mg/l. Here, the total phosphorus is also high with value of 3.81 mg/l. Dissolved oxygen values along the coast vary from 2.5 to 6.4 mg/l. The variations in nitrate concentration in the Red Sea water along the coast are observed to range from 6.90 to 26.61 mg/l. This study provides a preliminary assessment of the coastal pollution and will act as a data base for future investigations and monitoring of the Red Sea coastal waters.     

Policy narratives help maintain institutional traps in the governance of floods in Thailand

Abstract

The governance of floods in urbanizing regions of Thailand is significantly constrained by institutional traps. Comparisons of the impacts and governance responses to major flood events in Chiang Mai, Ayutthaya and Bangkok in 2005–06 and 2011 suggests that there has been very little policy learning. Institutional traps remain as important now as they were more than a decade ago. Dominant policy narratives help maintain institutional traps by promoting solutions that reduce organizational risks, like the transfer of responsibilities to local communities, or reflect organizational interests and professional norms. Policy narratives will need to be challenged or transformed if progress in building urban resilience to floods is to be made.     

The Quality of Drinking Water at Source of West Amman,Jordan

Abstract

In the summer of 2002, a detailed survey of water samples collected from King Abdullah Canal (KAC), which is the major source of drinking water in Amman, Jordan, was analyzed for its major ionic composition, five heavy metals, 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and chlorinated pesticides residues in order to evaluate its suitability for drinking purposes. The results showed that the major source of chemical constituents and micropollutants such as heavy metals, PAH, and organochlorinated pesticides in the canal water samples originated from Syria and Israel since the canal water supply initially originate from these countries. The pH values of all analyzed water samples obtained were relatively high due to the buffering effect of carbonate rocks at the source. The major chemical composition indicated that the canal water was weak to moderate salinity dominated by Ca, Mg, and HCO₃ ions, which is due to the dolomite lithology at source. Despite the fact that the canal water runs in an intensive agricultural area, the analysis of this study concludes that the water of the canal is acceptable in terms of its organic and inorganic constituents. All samples showed low concentrations and were within their guidelines. Nitrate values ranged from 2.2 ppm to 13.2 ppm, organochlorinated pesticides ranged from 0.11 ppm to 0.82 ppm for individual pesticides, and the sum did not exceed the European guideline of 0.5 ppm. Ten PAHs were detected in the analyzed samples ranging from 24.45 ng/l to 35.4 ng/l and in all samples; no concentration reached the maximum level permitted by the EPA for drinking water. All samples showed a slight increase in concentration along the canal flow.     

Appraisal and Assessment of World Water Resources

Abstract

A critical analysis of the present situation on the global water resources assessment is made. Basic data and methodological approaches used by the author for the assessment and prediction of water resources, water use and water availability on the global scale are briefly described. On the basis of data generalization of the world hydrological network new data are given on the dynamics of renewable water resources of the continents, physiographic and economic regions, selected countries as well as on the river water inflow to the world ocean. The results of the assessments for the 20^th century and for the future before 2010–2025 on the water supply for municipal, industrial and agricultural needs as well as an additional evaporation from reservoirs are presented. Loads on water resources and water availability depending on socio-economic and phisiographic factors are analyzed; regions of water scarcity and water resources deficit are discovered. Possible ways of water supply improvement and elimination of water resources deficit in different regions and countries are discussed     

Climate Change and Water Resource Availability: An Impact Assessment for Bombay and Madras,India

ABSTRACT

Global climate change associated with rising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases may alter regional temperature and precipitation patterns. Such changes could threaten the availability of water resources/Or rapidly growing Third World cities, many of which are already experiencing severe water supply deficiencies. This paper investigates the potential impacts of climate change on water resource availability for two Indian cities, Bombay and Madras. The paper begins by discussing future trends for population growth and water demand in each city. Nat, using climate change scenarios based on three general circulation models (GCMs), the paper assesses how climate change may affect water availability in the two urban regions. The assessment is conducted through the use of a monthly dryness index measuring potential evapotranspiration and precipitation. For each region, the dryness index under “normal” climatic conditions is compared with indexes created using GCM scenarios. The results of this assessment indicate that, unless large increases in regional precipitation accompany climate warming, higher rates of evapotranspiration will mean reduced water availability for both cities. The paper concludes by discussing some implications for water management in Third World cities.     

Contradictions and Challenges in China's Water Policy Development

Abstract

External assessment of China's water problems, and recommendations for policy solutions, often fail to recognize interrelated physical, institutional, historical-cultural, and ideologically-grounded contradictions in the water sphere, distinctive to China, that challenge Chinese policy makers in unique ways. As new market-based approaches to flood and drought prevention and control, water quality maintenance, adequate water supply, and ecological support are being discussed and implemented, problems of overcoming deep-seated contradictions in the water economy compel searching review of policy assumptions and strategies which force reconsideration and modification of longstanding strategies and procedures for managing water resources. This paper considers the implications of water policy contradictions and challenges in four key areas: (1) coordination of economic measures and legal constraints associated with a 1988 Water Law; (2) a major 1999 policy shift from emphasis on strutural engineering solutions in shuili (water management) enterprise to a broader resource-defined concept of “resource” water management (ziyuanshuili) in support of water sustainability; (3) continuing reference to traditional historical/cultural and Marxist theoretical perspectives despite increasing adoption of Western market-based instruments in water policy development; and (4) problems of modifying and adapting indigenous water science and engineering in the process of building a new water economy. The paper concludes that bilateral and multilateral efforts to ameliorate China's water problems may be successful in achieving limited technical objectives in the several water sectors but face difficulties in contributing to China's long-term water sustainability and hazard mitigation because they are insensitive to internal contradictions that are being addressed with ever greater intensity and urgency in the quest for solutions.     

Global Water Demand and Supply Projections

Abstract

This paper presents a modeling approach for projections of water demand and supply for domestic, industrial, livestock, and irrigation at the basin or country level in a global scope. Particular emphasis is put on simulating water availability for crops taking into account total renewable water, non-irrigation water demand, water supply infrastructure, and economic and environmental policies at the basin or country level. This paper focuses on concepts and methodology involved in the modeling exercise. Data assessment and results are presented in a companion paper (Rosegrant and Cai, 2002).     

Integrated Assessment of Water Resources Potential in the North China Region

Abstract

Potential assessment of water resources development (PAWRD) is very important for regional water management, water allocation, water transfer, and economic planning, especially for today's China, which is under a rapid economic growth, a continued expansion of population, and an increasingly deteriorating eco-environment. In this work, the southern part of Hathe River (SPHR) is selected as the representative area of the North China Region for a case study based on considerations such as available data, geographic characteristics, administrative boundaries, and the state of water shortage. A growth pattern of regional water resources development is presented. A fuzzy assessment model is established and applied to determine the growth stage, an indicator for water resources development potential. Seven assessment factors, selected based on the conditions of supply, demand, and use efficiency of water subjected to the regional physical, social, and economic settings, include irrigation rate of arable land, exploitation rate of water resources, the water-saving level, a water supply and demand modulus, the water supply per capita, and the ratio of eco-environmental water use. These factors are integrated into the fuzzy assessment model, which is shown to be capable and effective for potential assessment. The assessment results demonstrate the potential of water resources development is little in SPHR and are substantiated by the necessity of the middle route of the South-North Water Transfer (SNWT) in the long run. It is also suggested at present that promoting water saving and strengthening water demand controls would be the most feasible and effective solution to mitigate water shortage stress of SPHR before the SNWT scheme is implemented. PAWRD provides a scientific tool for water-demand management and water-saving improvement, as well as a necessary basis for decision-making for economy planning and water transfer design.     

Ecological Values of Potential Polder Areas

ABSTRACT

Tank irrigation systems contribute nearly one third of the total irrigated area in south India and hence their management is an important practical need. This article examines some major considerations related to tank irrigation systems in south India. A comprehensive view of the problems affecting the sustainability of these systems is presented. The major deficiencies that influence the sustainability are inadequate maintenance. reduction in storage capacity, heavy seepage losses in the delivery system, and poor water management techniques. There is a pressing need to evolve and implement appropriate strategies that must be sound on technical, social, economical, institutional, and economical dimensions for sustainable development and management of tank systems. Important practical solutions are discussed for urgent action in the context of sustainable development and management of these irrigation systems.     

The Yellow River: Managing the Unmanageable

Abstract

Hydrosolidarity in the Yellow River is a complex and difficult task, especially as this river has sediment problems that are unique in the world. The balancing of discharge needed for sediment management, relative to that needed for augmentation of water supply within and outside the basin, and for conservation of threatened ecosystems downstream presents a series of compromises that must rank as amongst the most challenging in basin-wide management of major world rivers. Until such time as south-to-north diversions are in place, the Yellow River is the only major water supply to the North China Plain, where water scarcity is now estimated to be some 40 km³ annually, representing 70 percent of the flow of the Yellow River. The hydrological management of Yellow River erosion involves three major factors: erosion and sediment transport, flooding, and river desiccation in the downstream reaches. This paper outlines several major development projects in the Yellow River basin that are attempting to achieve hydrosolidarity while, at the same time, providing needed water supplies to water-scarce parts of the basin.     

Functions of OECD Water Governance Principles in assessing water governance practices: assessing the Dutch Flood Protection Programme

ABSTRACT

The OECD Principles on Water Governance aim to contribute to good water governance. Learning and change through assessments are useful ways to strengthen water governance systems. This article presents a methodology for a learning assessment based on the OECD principles. The methodology has been applied to the Dutch Flood Protection Programme. The analysis revealed various functions of the OECD principles, from enhancing understanding to reforming the agenda, reflection and informed action. Recommendations are given on how the OECD principles can be used to come to meaningful action-oriented water governance assessments; they include contextualization, multiple methods, inclusiveness and periodic assessments.     

Dissemination of Generalized Water Resources Models in the United States

ABSTRACT

Federal water agencies and other entities in the United States have invested extensive effort during the past three decades to develop generalized computer models for simulating water resources systems. A great deal of expertise, time, and expense was required to develop these models but they are now available to the professional water management community worldwide at nominal cost. With recent advances in computer technology, most people working in the water resources field have access to desktop computers providing all the hardware capabilities needed to execute the powerful array of available software. Many of these software packages are widely used by public agencies and private firms throughout the United States and in other countries. This paper highlights the availability and role of generalized computer modeling packages and outlines the institutional setting within which the models are disseminated throughout the water management community.     

Challenges in assessing the regional feasibility of local water storage

ABSTRACT

The regional effects of local water storage are largely unknown. This study identifies, categorizes and discusses the challenges in assessing the potential of local water storage. These are illustrated using a structured method applied to a Dutch case. We conclude that the focus must shift from storage ‘potential’ (the quantity of water that can be stored) to storage ‘feasibility’, which depends on exploitability, purpose and interactions between storage alternatives. Spatial and temporal scale also influence feasibility. Finally, farmers’ investment preferences are a factor, though these are shrouded in uncertainty. This overview is a first step towards improving storage assessment tools and processes.     

Women and WASH in Nepal: a scoping review of existing literature

ABSTRACT

The relationship between gender and water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services is an issue for many developing states. This scoping review demonstrates that in Nepal, women bear the major social burden of inadequate WASH services and are under-represented in WASH-related policies and programmes. Four themes emerge: gender and water projects; lack of equal female participation in WASH policy development and implementation; women’s access to water; and menstruation and menstrual hygiene. Major cultural barriers embedded in Nepali society limit women’s access, agency and participation in WASH-related policy and practice.     

Water Conservation in Oman

ABSTRACT

Limited resources and growing needs for water have triggered a nationwide campaign for water conservation in the Sultanate of Oman. A land and soil survey study of Oman shows the availability of more arable land than present water resources could support. Groundwater is the main source for agricultural production. Overpumping at rates higher than the natural recharge has resulted in lowering of the ground water table, while seawater intrusion has led to an increase in soil salinity. A comprehensive water program is underway to: (1) conserve water through efficent irrigation, use of soil additives, modern irrigation systems, agronomic management, and institutionalization; and (2) augmentation of resources via introduction of more desalinization plants, more waste water treatment, use of brackish water; water fog collection, and water harvesting by building recharge dams.     

Advising Morocco: adopting recommendations of a water footprint assessment would increase risk and impair food security for the country and its farmers

ABSTRACT

A water footprint assessment is not an appropriate guide for allocating water efficiently in water-scarce regions such as Morocco. Water footprints contain too little information to identify policies or investments that will achieve public goals regarding agriculture, natural resources and livelihoods. In fact, they would impair efforts to enhance food security and sustain economic growth. The better way forward for Morocco and other countries is to analyze the full range of economic, social and environmental issues pertaining to water use in agriculture and other sectors.     

Implications of effluent discharge from a proposed wastewater treatment plant on coastal water quality in the upper gulf of Thailand

Abstract

The paper deals with the assessment of the change in coastal water quality due to effluent discharge from a wastewater treatment plant through an outfall in the Upper Gulf of Thailand. A hydrodynamic and water quality modeling approach is used to predict the water quality level in the vicinity of the outfall when the effluent discharge and concentration levels are specified. With the continuation of effluent discharge for a one‐year period, the concentration levels of coliform bacteria and nutrients increase significantly in the vicinity of the outfall. These inferred states of seawater quality would pose hygiene risks for green mussel cultivation and affect the ecosystem due to high nutrient enrichment and eutrophication. Recommendations for improvement are put forward keeping a balance between social, economic, and engineering considerations.