一种面向人脸识别的加权代价敏感局部保持投影

传统的局部保持降维方法追求最低的识别错误率,即假设每一类的错分代价都是相同的.这个假设在真实的人脸识别应用中往往是不成立的.人脸识别是一个多类的代价敏感和类不平衡问题.例如,在人脸识别的门禁系统中,将入侵者错分成合法者的损失往往高于将合法者错分成入侵者的损失.因此,每一类的错分代价是不同的.另外,如果任一类合法者的样本数少于入侵者的样本数,该类合法者和入侵者就是类别不平衡的.为此,将错分代价融入到局部保持的降维模型中,提出了一种错分代价最小化的局部保持降维方法.同时,采用加权策略平衡了各类样本对投影方向的贡献.在人脸数据集AR,PIE,Extended Yale B 上的实验结果表明了该算法的有效性.     

代价敏感学习方法综述

分类是机器学习的重要任务之一.传统的分类学习算法追求最低的分类错误率,假设不同类型的错误分类具有相等的损失.然而,在诸如人脸识别门禁系统、软件缺陷预测、多标记学习等应用领域中,不同类型的错误分类所导致的损失差异较大.这要求学习算法对可能导致高错分损失的样本加以重点关注,使得学习模型的整体错分损失最小.为解决该问题,代价敏感学习方法引起了研究者的极大关注.以代价敏感学习方法的理论基础作为切入点,系统阐述了代价敏感学习的主要模型方法以及代表性的应用领域.最后,讨论并展望了未来可能的研究趋势.     

基于Cost-Sensitive主成分分析的人脸识别

目前现有的人脸识别算法寻求最高的正确识别率,且假设所有的错误分类具有相同的错分代价,但此假设在现实的人脸识别系统中往往不成立。为此,提出一种基于代价敏感(Cost-Sensitive)主成分分析的人脸识别方法,该方法在主成分分析理论中引入一个代价敏感函数,将不同错误识别所造成的损失进行分类划分,以确定不同的损失代价,实现更精确的人脸识别。在AR、FERET和UMIST人脸数据集上的实验结果表明,与经典的基于子空间的人脸识别方法相比,提出的方法以最少的代价达到了较高的k最近邻分类识别精度。     

代价敏感的局部判别嵌入人脸识别算法

局部判别嵌入算法寻求最高的正确识别率时假设所有的错误分类具有相同的错分代价,然而这个假设在现实的人脸识别系统中往往是不成立的,因为不同的错误分类将会导致不同的错分代价.为此,提出一种代价敏感的局部判别嵌入算法.首先通过构造代价矩阵将代价敏感理念融入到特征提取阶段,以提高算法判别不同错误分类的能力;然后最大化异类近邻样本点之间的错分代价,同时最小化同类近邻样本点之间的距离;最后利用迭代算法求得最佳的正交投影向量,以更好地维持数据的度量架构.在Yale,ORL,AR和Extended Yale B人脸数据库上的实验结果表明,文中算法是有效的.     

多标签代价敏感分类集成学习算法

尽管多标签分类问题可以转换成一般多分类问题解决,但多标签代价敏感分类问题却很难转换成多类代价敏感分类问题.通过对多分类代价敏感学习算法扩展为多标签代价敏感学习算法时遇到的一些问题进行分析,提出了一种多标签代价敏感分类集成学习算法.算法的平均错分代价为误检标签代价和漏检标签代价之和,算法的流程类似于自适应提升（Adaptive boosting,AdaBoost）算法,其可以自动学习多个弱分类器来组合成强分类器,强分类器的平均错分代价将随着弱分类器增加而逐渐降低.详细分析了多标签代价敏感分类集成学习算法和多类代价敏感AdaBoost算法的区别,包括输出标签的依据和错分代价的含义.不同于通常的多类代价敏感分类问题,多标签代价敏感分类问题的错分代价要受到一定的限制,详细分析并给出了具体的限制条件.简化该算法得到了一种多标签AdaBoost算法和一种多类代价敏感AdaBoost算法.理论分析和实验结果均表明提出的多标签代价敏感分类集成学习算法是有效的,该算法能实现平均错分代价的最小化.特别地,对于不同类错分代价相差较大的多分类问题,该算法的效果明显好于已有的多类代价敏感AdaBoost算法.     

多分类问题代价敏感AdaBoost算法

针对目前多分类代价敏感分类问题在转换成二分类代价敏感分类问题存在的代价合并问题, 研究并构造出了可直接应用于多分类问题的代价敏感AdaBoost算法.算法具有与连续AdaBoost算法 类似的流程和误差估计. 当代价完全相等时, 该算法就变成了一种新的多分类的连续AdaBoost算法, 算法能够确保训练错误率随着训练的分类器的个数增加而降低, 但不直接要求各个分类器相互独立条件, 或者说独立性条件可以通过算法规则来保证, 但现有多分类连续AdaBoost算法的推导必须要求各个分类器相互独立. 实验数据表明, 算法可以真正实现分类结果偏向错分代价较小的类, 特别当每一类被错分成其他类的代价不平衡但平均代价相等时, 目前已有的多分类代价敏感学习算法会失效, 但新方法仍然能 实现最小的错分代价. 研究方法为进一步研究集成学习算法提供了一种新的思路, 得到了一种易操作并近似满足分类错误率最小的多标签分类问题的AdaBoost算法.     

基于马氏距离的局部边界Fisher分析降维算法

针对人脸识别应用中的高维数据图像以及欧氏距离不能准确体现样本间的相似度的问题,提出了一种基于马氏距离的局部边界Fisher分析(MLMFA)降维算法。该算法从现有的样本中学习得到一个马氏度量,然后在近邻选择以及新样本降维过程中用马氏距离作为相似性度量。同时,通过马氏度量构造出类内“相似”图和类间“代价”图来描述数据集的类内紧凑性和类间分离性。MLMFA很好地保持了数据集的局部结构。用YALE和FERET人脸库进行实验,MLMFA的最大识别率比传统基于欧氏距离算法的最大识别率平均分别提高了1.03%和6%。实验结果表明,算法MLMFA具有很好的分类和识别性能。     

基于AUC的分类器评价和设计综述

尽管精度(或总体错分率)普遍用作分类算法的性能评价指标,但存在诸如敏感于类先验分布和错分代价,忽略分类算法所得的后验概率或排序信息等不足.而接收者操作特性(ROC)曲线下面积则能度量算法在整个类先验分布及错分代价范围内的总体分类性能、后验概率和排序性能,因此在分类学习中受到越来越多的关注,由此涌现出众多研究成果.文章旨...     

具有Fisher一致性的代价敏感Boosting算法

AdaBoost 是一种重要的集成学习元算法,算法最核心的特性“Boosting”也是解决代价敏感学习问题的有效方法.然而,各种代价敏感Boosting 算法,如AdaCost、AdaC 系列算法、CSB 系列算法等采用启发式策略,向AdaBoost 算法的加权投票因子计算公式或权值调整策略中加入代价参数,迫使算法聚焦于高代价样本.然而,这些启发式策略没有经过理论分析的验证,对原算法的调整破坏了AdaBoost 算法最重要的Boosting 特性。AdaBoost算法收敛于贝叶斯决策,与之相比,这些代价敏感Boosting 并不能收敛到代价敏感的贝叶斯决策.针对这一问题,研究严格遵循Boosting 理论框架的代价敏感Boosting 算法.首先,对分类间隔的指数损失函数以及Logit 损失函数进行代价敏感改造,可以证明新的损失函数具有代价意义下的Fisher 一致性,在理想情况下,优化这些损失函数最终收敛到代价敏感贝叶斯决策;其次,在Boosting 框架下使用函数空间梯度下降方法优化新的损失函数得到算法AsyB以及AsyBL.二维高斯人工数据上的实验结果表明,与现有代价敏感Boosting 算法相比,AsyB 和AsyBL 算法能够有效逼近代价敏感贝叶斯决策;UCI 数据集上的测试结果也进一步验证了AsyB 以及AsyBL 算法能够生成有更低错分类代价的代价敏感分类器,并且错分类代价随迭代呈指数下降.     

一种基于极大熵的快速无监督线性降维方法

现实世界中高维数据无处不在,然而在高维数据中往往存在大量的冗余和噪声信息,这导致很多传统聚类算法在对高维数据聚类时不能获得很好的性能.实践中发现高维数据的类簇结构往往嵌入在较低维的子空间中.因而,降维成为挖掘高维数据类簇结构的关键技术.在众多降维方法中,基于图的降维方法是研究的热点.然而,大部分基于图的降维算法存在以下两个问题:(1)需要计算或者学习邻接图,计算复杂度高;(2)降维的过程中没有考虑降维后的用途.针对这两个问题,提出一种基于极大熵的快速无监督降维算法MEDR. MEDR算法融合线性投影和极大熵聚类模型,通过一种有效的迭代优化算法寻找高维数据嵌入在低维子空间的潜在最优类簇结构. MEDR算法不需事先输入邻接图,具有样本个数的线性时间复杂度.在真实数据集上的实验结果表明,与传统的降维方法相比, MEDR算法能够找到更好地将高维数据投影到低维子空间的投影矩阵,使投影后的数据有利于聚类.     

基于代价敏感卷积神经网络的人脸年龄识别方法

当年龄识别被看作是分类问题时,基于卷积神经网络(CNN)的方法通常直接采用一般图像分类的CNN进行年龄识别,常常忽略了进行人脸年龄识别时需要考虑的误分类代价问题,比如,将一个青年人误分类为中年人和老年人的代价是不同的。基于上述观察,提出一种基于代价敏感卷积神经网络(CS-CNN)的人脸年龄估计方法。具体来讲,基于期望类最大原则(Desired Class Maximum Principle, DCMP)提出了一种能够使CNN学习到鲁棒人脸特征的代价敏感交叉熵损失函数(CS-CE),最后通过理论与实验的方法进行验证。相较之前的人脸年龄识别方法,提升的效果是显著的。     

Real-Time Pose-Invariant Face Recognition Using the Efficient Second-Order Minimization and the Pose Transforming Matrix

We propose a real-time pose-invariant face recognition algorithm from a gallery of frontal images only. (i) We modified the second-order minimization method for the active appearance model (AAM). This allows the AAM to have the ability of correct convergence with little loss of frame rate. (ii) We proposed a pose transforming matrix that can eliminate warping artifacts of the warped face image from AAM fitting. This makes it possible to train a neural network as the face recognizer with one frontal face image of each person in the gallery set. (iii) We propose a simple method for pose recognition by using neural networks to select the proper pose transforming matrix. The proposed algorithm was evaluated on a set of 2000 facial images of 10 people (200 images for each person obtained at various poses), achieving a great improvement in recognition.     

Incremental linear discriminant analysis for face recognition.

Dimensionality reduction methods have been successfully employed for face recognition. Among the various dimensionality reduction algorithms, linear (Fisher) discriminant analysis (LDA) is one of the popular supervised dimensionality reduction methods, and many LDA-based face recognition algorithms/systems have been reported in the last decade. However, the LDA-based face recognition systems suffer from the scalability problem. To overcome this limitation, an incremental approach is a natural solution. The main difficulty in developing the incremental LDA (ILDA) is to handle the inverse of the within-class scatter matrix. In this paper, based on the generalized singular value decomposition LDA (LDA/GSVD), we develop a new ILDA algorithm called GSVD-ILDA. Different from the existing techniques in which the new projection matrix is found in a restricted subspace, the proposed GSVD-ILDA determines the projection matrix in full space. Extensive experiments are performed to compare the proposed GSVD-ILDA with the LDA/GSVD as well as the existing ILDA methods using the face recognition technology face database and the Carneggie Mellon University Pose, Illumination, and Expression face database. Experimental results show that the proposed GSVD-ILDA algorithm gives the same performance as the LDA/GSVD with much smaller computational complexity. The experimental results also show that the proposed GSVD-ILDA gives better classification performance than the other recently proposed ILDA algorithms.     

可变光照条件下的人脸图像识别

对于人脸图像识别中光照变化的影响,传统的解决方法是对待识别图像进行光照补偿,先使它成为标准光照条件下的图像,然后和模板图像匹配来进行识别。为了提高在光照条件大范围变化时,人脸图像的识别率,提出了一种新的可变光照条件下的人脸图像识别方法。该方法首先利用在9个基本光照方向下分别获得的9幅图像来构成人脸光照特征空间,再通过这个光照特征空间,将图像库中的人脸图像变换成与待识别图像具有相同光照条件的图像,并将其作为模板图像;然后利用特征脸方法进行识别。实验结果表明,这种方法不仅能够有效地解决人脸识别中由于光照变化影响所造成的识别率下降的问题,而且对于光照条件大范围变化的情况,也可以得到比较高的正确识别率。     

基于Gabor小波与深度信念网络的人脸识别方法

特征提取与模式分类是人脸识别的两个关键问题。针对人脸识别中的高维和小样本问题,从人脸特征的提取与降维算法入手,提出基于受限玻尔兹曼机(RBM)的二次特征提取及降维算法模型。首先把图像均匀分成若干局部图像块并进行量化,再对图像进行Gabor小波变换,通过RBM对得到的Gabor人脸特征进行编码,学习数据更本质的特征,从而达到对高维人脸特征降维的目的;并以此为基础提出基于深度信念网络(DBN)的多通道人脸识别算法。在ORL、UMIST和FERET人脸库上对不同样本规模和不同分辨率的图像进行实验,识别结果表明,与采用线性降维和浅层网络的方法相比,所提方法取得了较好的学习效率和很好的识别效果。     

Learning warps based similarity for pose-unconstrained face recognition

Face recognition techniques are widely used in many applications, such as automatic detection of crime scenes from surveillance cameras for public safety. In these real cases, the pose and illumination variances between two matching faces have a big influence on the identification performance. Handling pose changes is an especially challenging task. In this paper, we propose the learning warps based similarity method to deal with face recognition across the pose problem. Warps are learned between two patches from probe faces and gallery faces using the Lucas-Kanade algorithm. Based on these warps, a frontal face registered in the gallery is transformed into a series of non-frontal viewpoints, which enables non-frontal probe face matching with the frontal gallery face. Scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) keypoints (interest points) are detected from the generated viewpoints and matched with the probe faces. Moreover, based on the learned warps, the probability likelihood is used to calculate the probability of two faces being the same subject. Finally, a hybrid similarity combining the number of matching keypoints and the probability likelihood is proposed to describe the similarity between a gallery face and a probe face. Experimental results show that our proposed method achieves better recognition accuracy than other algorithms it was compared to, especially when the pose difference is within 40 degrees.

     

Open-set face recognition across look-alike faces in real-world scenarios

The open-set problem is among the problems that have significantly changed the performance of face recognition algorithms in real-world scenarios. Open-set operates under the supposition that not all the probes have a pair in the gallery. Most face recognition systems in real-world scenarios focus on handling pose, expression and illumination problems on face recognition. In addition to these challenges, when the number of subjects is increased for face recognition, these problems are intensified by look-alike faces for which there are two subjects with lower intra-class variations. In such challenges, the inter-class similarity is higher than the intra-class variation for these two subjects. In fact, these look-alike faces can be created as intrinsic, situation-based and also by facial plastic surgery. This work introduces three real-world open-set face recognition methods across facial plastic surgery changes and a look-alike face by 3D face reconstruction and sparse representation. Since some real-world databases for face recognition do not have multiple images per person in the gallery, with just one image per subject in the gallery, this paper proposes a novel idea to overcome this challenge by 3D modeling from gallery images and synthesizing them for generating several images. Accordingly, a 3D model is initially reconstructed from frontal face images in a real-world gallery. Then, each 3D reconstructed face in the gallery is synthesized to several possible views and a sparse dictionary is generated based on the synthesized face image for each person. Also, a likeness dictionary is defined and its optimization problem is solved by the proposed method. Finally, the face recognition is performed for open-set face recognition using three proposed representation classifications. Promising results are achieved for face recognition across plastic surgery and look-alike faces on three databases including the plastic surgery face, look-alike face and LFW databases compared to several state-of-the-art methods. Also, several real-world and open-set scenarios are performed to evaluate the proposed method on these databases in real-world scenarios.     

基于Gabor 小波和HMM 的人像鉴别算法

探讨了利用Gabor小波和隐马尔可夫模型（HMM）进行人脸识别的方法，首先对人脸图像进行多分辨率的Gabor小波变换；然后在图像上放置一组网格结点，每个结点用该结点处的多尺度Gabor幅度特征描述，采用独立元分析法对每个结点进行去相关和降维；最后形成特征结，把每个特征结作为观测向量，对隐马尔可夫模型进行训练，并将优化的模型参数用于人脸识别，ORL人脸库的实验结果表明，该方法识别率高，工程上易于应用。     

Locality preserving and global discriminant projection with prior information

Existing supervised and semi-supervised dimensionality reduction methods utilize training data only with class labels being associated to the data samples for classification. In this paper, we present a new algorithm called locality preserving and global discriminant projection with prior information (LPGDP) for dimensionality reduction and classification, by considering both the manifold structure and the prior information, where the prior information includes not only the class label but also the misclassification of marginal samples. In the LPGDP algorithm, the overlap among the class-specific manifolds is discriminated by a global class graph, and a locality preserving criterion is employed to obtain the projections that best preserve the within-class local structures. The feasibility of the LPGDP algorithm has been evaluated in face recognition, object categorization and handwritten Chinese character recognition experiments. Experiment results show the superior performance of data modeling and classification to other techniques, such as linear discriminant analysis, locality preserving projection, discriminant locality preserving projection and marginal Fisher analysis.