一种无损恢复的多级别的可视密码方案*

针对传统可视密码方案存在像素扩展且只能恢复一幅秘密图像的问题,提出无像素扩展的多秘密可视密码方案。基于随机栅格理论和异或运算对多个级别的秘密图像进行分存,对各个级别的分存图像进行异或即可依次恢复所有级别的秘密图像。可以实现二值秘密图像的无损恢复,并可扩展到灰度图像和彩色图像。图像传输引入纠错编码机制,提高方案的可靠性。实验结果表明分存图像没有像素扩展,恢复图像与原秘密图像相比无失真且能满足安全性要求。     

结合调整差值变换的(K,N)有意义图像分存方案

目的 针对传统有意义分存方法存在的像素扩张和分发掩体图像视觉质量不高等问题,提出一种结合调整差值变换的(K,N)有意义图像分存方案,该方案可用于与掩体等大且同为自然图像的密图分存.方法 在分存阶段,首先用调整差值变换将密图转换为差值图和位置图;其次将差值图和位置图进行(K,N)分存,分别嵌入到掩体图像中,并使用密钥确定位置图分存信息的嵌入位置和根据位置图中不同的差值类型选择不同的差值嵌入方法;再次对密钥进行(K,N)分存,将子密钥和分发掩体对应的MD5值公布到第3方公信方作为认证码;最后将子密钥和分发掩体分发给参与者进行保管.在恢复阶段,首先核对参与者的子密钥和分发掩体对应的MD5值,若认证通过的人数小于K,则恢复失败;否则,使用认证通过的子密钥还原出密钥,然后根据密钥提取并恢复出位置图;其次根据位置图中的差值类型来提取和恢复出差值图;最后使用逆调整差值变换还原出最终密图.结果 同现有方法相比,所提策略不存在像素扩张且分发掩体图像视觉质量较高,具有较强的恶意参与者检测能力.结论 本文方法的掩体图像与密图等大且同为自然图像,同经典有意义图像分存方案相比,克服了像素扩张问题,嵌入信息后的掩体图像具有较高的视觉质量,使用第3方公信方存储的MD5值作为认证码,具有较强的恶意参与者识别能力.     

基于异或的(k,n)多秘密视觉密码

在多个参与者之间分享多幅秘密图像时,为了解决像素扩展度和相对差随着秘密图像和参与者数量的增加而分别急剧扩大和减小的问题,本文从代数结构入手,结合异或运算和柱面共享份旋转操作,给出了一种多秘密视觉密码方案的定义,能够支持(k,n)门限结构下多个秘密的分享.以基于异或的单秘密视觉密码方案的基矩阵为加密单元,设计了多秘密分享与恢复流程,给出了一种实现方案.仿真实验结果表明:本方案不仅在多个共享份之间能够分享多幅秘密图像,而且减小了像素扩展度,提高了相对差.     

异或视觉密码方案目标优化研究*

通过建立群结构的视觉密码目标优化模型,设计了一种基于异或的(k, n)门限方案。该方案将基础矩阵构造问题转换为共享份中出现黑白像素概率的求解问题,通过概率矩阵对加密规则进行选择得到共享份。实验结果表明,该方案在像素不扩展的同时,使相对差大幅改善。     

结合EMD-cl嵌入的多载体密图分存方法

目的 传统误差扩散或恢复函数的多载体密图分存会对嵌密载体视觉质量造成较大影响,同时恢复函数需单独设计,只适用于二值或灰度图像,且通过简单Arnold置乱或异或加密仅能提供有限的安全性。针对此问题,提出结合EMD-c^l嵌入的多载体密图分存方法。方法 采用双哈希MD5和SHA-1值产生多组与密图属性和用户密钥有关的置乱参数,驱动2维双尺度矩形映射来改变载体像素对应关系,然后将置乱后载体同位置像素构成向量,按扩展约瑟夫遍历映射分配基向量,通过EMD-c^l嵌入秘密像素,从而将密图分存到多张载体中。结果 采用EMD-c^l提高了嵌密载体视觉质量且不需额外设计恢复函数,可针对不同分辨率和灰度阶密图分存。所提方法载体像素位置和EMD-c^l基向量都与密图MD5和SHA-1值以及用户密钥紧密绑定,仅有正确用户密钥和密图MD5和SHA-1值才能对密图恢复,并可通过第三方公信方托管的参与者分存信息MD5和SHA-1值使得所述策略具备认证能力。所提方法密钥空间为1.193 6×10¹¹⁸,可抵抗暴力破解。实验结果表明,结合EMD-c^l,所提方法具有较好的嵌密载体视觉质量,NC趋近于1,对于EMD-3^l,嵌密载体PSNR均接近50 dB;对于EMD-5^l和EMD-7^l,PSNR分别达到45 dB和42 dB,而传统方法,PSNR最好仅为42 dB。所提方法可分存不同分辨率和灰度阶密图,可对参与者密钥分存信息的真实性进行检验且对密图哈希和用户密钥极度敏感。结论 所提方法具有较低复杂度,较高安全性和普适性及认证能力,在整体性能上优于传统误差扩散或恢复函数的多载体密图分存方法,适用于对嵌密载体视觉质量要求高和针对不同分辨率和灰度阶密图分存的安全场景中。     

非等量备份和双认证自修复有限域图像分存

传统有意义图像分存方案存在认证能力偏低、攻击后不具备修复能力或修复能力整体较弱以及嵌入掩体视觉质量不高等问题.针对以上问题,提出一种结合非等量备份和双认证自修复有限域图像分存方案.所提方案包含分存和恢复阶段.在分存阶段,首先对密图做1级离散小波变换,取LL子带按密钥置乱,并对置乱后LL子带每个系数比特按比特位重要程度分组进行非等量备份来构造与密图等大备份图;然后对密图和备份图每个像素及其对应7K-13位认证信息在GF（2⁷）有限域进行（K,N）分存,将产生的7位分存信息和使用密钥产生的1位认证信息使用优化LSB法嵌入到N个掩体2×2分块中;最后对密钥进行（K,N）分存,将子密钥对应MD5值公开到第3方公信方并将子密钥和嵌入掩体分发给参与者.在恢复阶段,首先对参与者提供的子密钥真实性进行检验,利用检验通过子密钥对密钥进行恢复;其次对分发掩体2×2分块嵌入的分存信息和1位认证信息使用密钥进行第1重认证,利用第1重认证通过分存信息重建GF（2⁷）有限域分存多项式,提取出密图和备份图每个像素及其对应的7K-13位认证信息并对其进行第2重检验和构造初步密图、备份图以及认证图;再次由备份图和认证图重构密图LL子带,然后对其做逆置乱和逆离散小波变换得到密图修复参考图;最后对认证图每一个认证不通过秘密像素,根据其周围像素认证情况选择多项式插值拟合或进行修复参考图像素替代修复.理论和实验表明,同现有方法相比,所提方法具备更好认证能力,并能充分使用双认证和自然图像邻近像素相关性来提升其攻击后修复能力,且分发掩体具备较高视觉质量.     

基于通用存取结构的异或区域递增式视觉密码方案

为了优化区域递增式视觉密码的性能参数,提出一种基于异或运算的区域递增式视觉密码方案.首先设计自适应区域分配算法,然后构造单秘密分享视觉密码的加密矩阵,最后设计秘密图像的分享与恢复流程,并给出一种实现方案.实验结果表明,该方案适用于通用存取结构,能提供更加丰富的应用场景,且像素不扩展,可有效地减少共享份的存储和传输开销;同时,恢复图像不存在颜色反转失真,白像素可以实现完全恢复,提高了相对差,能够显著地改善秘密图像的视觉效果.     

结合视觉密码和离散小波变换的栅格地理数据双重水印

目的 在栅格地理数据的使用过程中,为防止数据被破坏或被篡改,需要加强对数据完整性的检验;为防止数据被恶意传播,需要加强对数据版权信息的保护。双重水印技术可以同时完成这两项任务。方法 利用基于异或的（2,2）-视觉密码方案VCS（visual cryptography scheme）和离散小波变换DWT（discrete wavelet transform）,对数字栅格地理数据嵌入双重水印,使用半脆弱性水印作为第1重水印进行完整性检验,水印信息依据DWT变换后高频系数中水平分量之间的大小关系嵌入;使用零水印作为第2重水印进行版权保护,提取DWT变换后经低频子带奇异值分解的特征值生成特征份,利用基于异或的（2,2）-VCS,根据特征份和水印信息生成版权份。结果 为验证算法的有效性,对具体的栅格地理数据进行实验分析。结果表明,本文算法中第1重水印能够正确区分偶然攻击和恶意破坏,对含水印的栅格地理数据进行质量因子为90、80、70、60、50的JPEG压缩后,提取出完整性水印的归一化相关系数NC（normalized correlation）值分别是1、0.996、0.987、0.9513、0.949,在定位裁剪攻击时,能准确地定位到篡改的位置,对于定位替换攻击时,能定位到篡改的大致位置;第2重水印具有良好的视觉效果和较强的鲁棒性,对含水印的栅格地理数据进行滤波攻击、JPEG压缩、裁剪攻击、缩放攻击等性能测试,提取出版权水印的NC值优于其他方案。结论 论文基于异或的（2,2）-VCS和DWT提出的栅格地理数据双重水印算法,在实现数据完整性检验的同时达到了版权保护的目的。     

基于XOR运算的多秘密视觉密码*

将XOR运算引入多秘密视觉密码能够改善方案的恢复效果,但容易引起攻击者的注意。按照共享份分块构造的思路,结合(k, k)单秘密视觉密码的基础矩阵,设计了一种基于XOR运算的多秘密视觉密码方案。在恢复秘密时,对共享份进行XOR操作即可完全恢复多个秘密图像,而且防止了攻击者根据恢复图像及共享份的大小推断授权子集的数量。实验结果表明恢复图像与原秘密图像相比无失真。     

基于CRT的无损高效门限彩色图像秘密共享信息隐藏算法

目前对秘密图像共享的研究主要集中在灰度图像上, 而日常生活中使用的图像大多是彩色的, 因此, 研究彩色图像的秘密共享具有重要的意义和应用价值. 该方案将基于中国剩余定理(CRT)的秘密共享与DCT信息隐藏技术进行结合, 保障了传输彩色秘密图像的安全性. 在生成端, 利用DCT信息隐藏算法将彩色秘密图像通过CRT生成的彩色秘密影子图像, 嵌入至用户提供的彩色载体图像中, 并分发. 在恢复端提取出影子图像, 使用CRT恢复彩色秘密图像. 该过程满足(t, n)门限. 实验结果验证, 该算法可实现无损恢复, 并用相关参数对该方案进行评估, 优于其他方案.     

A novel two-in-one image secret sharing scheme based on perfect black visual cryptography

Perfect black visual cryptography scheme (PBVCS) shares a binary secret image into n shadows. Stacking any \(k(k<n)\) shadows can reveal a vague secret image, and the black area of the secret image is recovered as perfect black. Two-in-one image secret sharing (TiOISS) scheme is a secret image sharing method with two decoding options. It can not only decode a vague secret image by stacking any k shadows, but also reveal the original grayscale secret image with k shadows by computation. Researchers proposed some TiOISS schemes, which are based on visual cryptography and polynomial-based image secret sharing (PISS). Since PISS reveals the secret image by Lagrange’s interpolation, these TiOISS schemes need complex computation. In this paper, we proposed a novel TiOISS scheme based on PBVCS using exclusive OR operation. Compared with literature TiOISS schemes, our scheme does not need complex computation in revealing process, and it can be used in real-time application. The grayscale secret image can be recovered quickly with a few Boolean operations.     

An efficient Boolean based multi-secret image sharing scheme

The purpose of this paper is to develop an algorithm for sharing k secret images to n participants in such a way that each participant gets a single share image by encoding all k images. Any qualified subgroup of t : t ≤ n of those n participants can reconstruct the k_ith secret image only by combining their share images if they are qualified to reconstruct the k_ith secret image. Most of the existing literature solves this problem for the cases where t =?2 or t = n making it a very restrictive scheme. In this article, we aim to design a multi-secret image sharing scheme based on XOR operation where t is not restricted to be 2 or n. We have used n random matrices of the same size as the secret image size as private share to generate r (where r is the number of qualified subgroups) share images as public share using XOR operations. The proposed scheme is computationally lightweight and lossless due to XOR operation only. It does not involve any pixel expansion. The experimental results with a very low correlation coefficient between share and secret images confirm that share image does not reveal anything about secret image. The scheme is secure against differential attack as a higher value of Number of Changing Pixel rate (NPCR) confirms that. The current proposal is based on a general access structure, and hence any secret image can be reconstructed by a qualified group of t or more shares where t need not be 2 or n only.

     

Visual cryptographic techniques for secret image sharing: a review

ABSTRACT

A visual cryptography scheme (VCS) allows one to decrypt images without any knowledge of cryptography and computational efforts. VCS allows secret image sharing such that we can divide the original image into meaningful or nonmeaningful shares. The shares are distributed among participants; during decryption, the original secret image is recovered through stacking all or some of the shares by the human visual system. Various techniques of visual cryptography were constructed mainly for binary images but later, they were enhanced to handle gray-scale or color images. This article focuses on the study of various visual cryptographic schemes and analyses the performance on the basis of various parameters such as, pixel expansion, type of shares generated, image format, number of secret images, encryption method, etc.. In the proposed work, we give a precise and complete review of various visual cryptographic schemes based on different research works related to this area and cite the relevant literature.     

A secure Boolean-based multi-secret image sharing scheme

An (n, n) multi-secret image sharing scheme shares n secret images among n shared images. In this type of schemes, n shared images can be used to recover all n secret images, but the loss of any shared image prevents the recovery of any secret image. Among existing image sharing techniques, Boolean-based secret schemes have good performance because they only require XOR calculation. This study presents a secure Boolean-based secret image sharing scheme that uses a random image generating function to generate a random image from secret images or shared images. The proposed function efficiently increases the sharing capacity on free of sharing the random image. The use of a bit shift subfunction in the random image generating function produces a random image to meet the random requirement. Experimental results show that the proposed scheme requires minimal CPU computation time to share or recover secret images. The time required to share n secret images is nearly the time as that required to recover n secret images. The bit shift subfunction takes more computation load than the XOR subfunction needs.     

Visual cryptography for color images

Visual cryptography, an emerging cryptography technology, uses the characteristics of human vision to decrypt encrypted images. It needs neither cryptography knowledge nor complex computation. For security concerns, it also ensures that hackers cannot perceive any clues about a secret image from individual cover images. Since Naor and Shamir proposed the basic model of visual cryptography, researchers have published many related studies. Most of these studies, however, concentrate on binary images; few of them proposed methods for processing gray-level and color images. This paper proposes three methods for visual cryptography of gray-level and color images based on past studies in black-and-white visual cryptography, the halftone technology, and the color decomposition method. Our methods not only retain the advantages of black-and-white visual cryptography, which exploits the human visual system to decrypt secret images without computation, but also have the backward compatibility with the previous results in black-and-white visual cryptography, such as the t out of n threshold scheme, and can be applied to gray-level and color images easily.     

On general construction for extended visual cryptography schemes

Numerous visual cryptography schemes (VCSs) have been proposed to protect a secret image with share images. Most VCSs use random-looking shares to code a single binary secret image. Some schemes are designed for color secret images. Droste's [New results on visual cryptography, in: Advances in Cryptology-CRYPTO ’96, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 1109, Springer, Berlin, 1996, pp. 401-415] (n,n)-VCS is introduced for multiple binary secret images. Extended VCS (EVCS), by Ateniese et al. [Extended capabilities for visual cryptography, Theoretical Computer Science 250 (2001) 143-161], for binary secret image uses meaningful (innocent-looking) shares. In this paper, we start with a more concise derivation of matrix extension in the ECVS model. This is implemented by concatenating an extended matrix to each basis matrix. We then present a general construction method for single or multiple binary/grayscale/color secret images using matrix extension utilizing meaningful shares. The result (k,n)-visual secret sharing schemes are more general than most existing schemes in terms of the secret/share image types. Using our matrix extension algorithm, any existing VCS with random-looking shares can be easily modified to utilize meaningful shares. The effectiveness of our schemes is demonstrated by real examples.     

Visual cryptography: A brief survey

Visual cryptography is an emerging technology to address the concerns regarding privacy of images. It is a powerful technique combining both the impeccable ciphers and secret sharing in cryptography with that of the raster graphics. Visual cryptography divides the secret image into shares or shadows during encryption. The term “visual” in visual cryptography stands for the fact that during decryption phase, a user can perceive the recovered secret with his/her visual system, without the intervention of machines. Various visual cryptography techniques have been discussed extensively in this survey. The metrics used to analyse the effectiveness of visual cryptography techniques have been briefed. The significant applications of visual cryptography have also been summarized in the survey.     

Visual secret sharing scheme for (<Emphasis Type="Italic">k</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">n</Emphasis>) threshold based on QR code with multiple decryptions

In this paper, a novel visual secret sharing (VSS) scheme based on QR code (VSSQR) with (k, n) threshold is investigated. Our VSSQR exploits the error correction mechanism in the QR code structure, to generate the bits corresponding to shares (shadow images) by VSS from a secret bit in the processing of encoding QR. Each output share is a valid QR code that can be scanned and decoded utilizing a QR code reader, which may reduce the likelihood of attracting the attention of potential attackers. Due to different application scenarios, two different recovered ways of the secret image are given. The proposed VSS scheme based on QR code can visually reveal secret image with the abilities of stacking and XOR decryptions as well as scan every shadow image, i.e., a QR code, by a QR code reader. The secret image could be revealed by human visual system without any computation based on stacking when no lightweight computation device. On the other hand, if the lightweight computation device is available, the secret image can be revealed with better visual quality based on XOR operation and could be lossless revealed when sufficient shares are collected. In addition, it can assist alignment for VSS recovery. The experiment results show the effectiveness of our scheme.