Visual scan patterns reflect to human-computer interactions on processing different types of messages in the flight deck

The flight deck of commercial aircraft is sophisticated and searching for the necessary information at the right time is sometimes challenging. This research investigates pilot's visual parameters while interacted with two different designs of crew alerting system by eye tracking technology. There are 24 aviation professionals that participated in this experiment including commercial pilots, private pilots and avionic engineers. Compared with traditional design, the new integrated design applied proximity compatibility principles to assist pilots in searching necessary information to deal with urgent situations. The results demonstrated that the integrated design is superior to traditional design in providing accurate instructions as determined by visual behaviors. However, the integrated design increases pilot's situation awareness by redirecting attention from current task to the most critical task with the cost of a longer total fixation duration time. Pilot's visual parameters demonstrated significant differences while interacting with PFD mainly numeric, ND mostly by symbols and EICAS with presented text messages. Therefore, flight deck design has to adopt a holistic approach as pilot's visual attentions is shifting among all types of different displays to gain situation awareness rather than focus on only one display. The design of integrated EICAS can provide detailed instructions to deal with urgent situations which induced higher cognitive loads as pilot's pupil dilation is significant bigger than interacted with traditional design. By eye tracking technology, it is applicable to design human-centred flight decks to improve safety and human performance in aviation.     

Cognitive Automation for Tactical Mission Management: Concept and Prototype Evaluation in Flight Simulator Trials

This paper describes an approach to cognitive and cooperative operator assistance in the field of tactical flight mission management. A framework for a generic functional concept is derived from general considerations of human performance and cognitive engineering. A system built according to these human-centred design principles will be able to keep up with the change of situation parameters, in order to provide situational adapted operator assistance. Such a cognitive assistant system represents an approach to ensure the highest degree possible of situation awareness of the flight deck crew as well as a satisfactory workload level. This generic approach to mission management and crew assistance for military aircraft has been realised in different application domains such as military transport and air-to-ground attack. The Crew Assistant Military Aircraft is a functional prototype for the air transport application. Even applications in the domain of uninhabited aerial vehicles (UAV) are in reach. This paper mainly covers one state-of-the-art research and development activity in the domain of combat aircraft: the TMM – Tactical Mission Management System is an experimental solution for the air-to-ground attack role. The TMM has been implemented as a functional prototype in the mission avionics experimental cockpit (MAXC), a development flight simulator at ESG and evaluated with German Air Force pilots as subjects in simulator trials. Therefore, the TMM has been compared with a reference cockpit avionics configuration in terms of task performance, workload, situation awareness and operator acceptance. After giving an overview of the system concepts this paper reports on the experimental design and results of the simulator trial campaign.     

Study on the influencing factors of the flight crew’s TSA based on DEMATEL–ISM method

Cognition, Technology & Work - It is increasingly being recognized that the flight crew’s team situation awareness (TSA) is essential for flight safety. To explore the inherent...     

Modern air transport flight deck design

The philosophy behind the flight deck design of Boeing's 757/767 is outlined: by simplifying subsystem design, one can simplify control panel configurations which leads to simplified displays. This in turn results in simplified crew procedures which is consistent with a two-crew flight deck. The development of the flight deck is described, and the details of the display systems arrived at are shown.     

Application and experience of colour CRT flight deck displays

Colour CRT displays have the potential both to enhance the presentation of primary flight information and also to improve the interface between complex avionic systems and the flight deck crew. This paper describes research to explore this potential, and reports the opinions of a wide range of pilots who experienced such displays in the working environment.     

基于Skyline技术的飞行过程再现

利用Skyline技术开发一种低成本、能够在普通PC上运行的飞机飞行过程再现软件。实现完整、准确、逼真地再现飞行过程，为飞行安全分析、飞行事故调查、飞行训练质量评估、飞行员操纵品质评估提供准确、客观的依据。     

A study on the student pilot's mental workload due to personality types of both instructor and student

The main purpose of this paper is to provide the ideal flight crew combination for instructor and student pilots in order to enhance the flight training effects based on Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) theory. In addition to personality, various levels of flight difficulty are considered in order to investigate their potential interaction effect in terms of student pilots' mental workload measured in heart rate, altitude deviation, NASA-TLX (Task Load Index) and subjective degree of personality harmony. Based on an experiment performed in a real flight situation, we found significant effects of personality combinations in terms of all four outcome measures. Both group C types of instructors and students who are concrete, realistic and have mechanical skills turn out to be the ideal flight crew combination. A structural equation model, fitted to analyse causality among the four response variables, implied that as the heart rate increased, the altitude deviation increased. In addition, as the altitude deviation and personality harmony increased, NASA-TLX increased. The results of this study are expected to provide a theoretical basis for manning the flight crew combinations and thereby enhancing the efficiency of flight training.     

A study on the student pilot's mental workload due to personality types of both instructor and student

The main purpose of this paper is to provide the ideal flight crew combination for instructor and student pilots in order to enhance the flight training effects based on Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) theory. In addition to personality, various levels of flight difficulty are considered in order to investigate their potential interaction effect in terms of student pilots' mental workload measured in heart rate, altitude deviation, NASA-TLX (Task Load Index) and subjective degree of personality harmony. Based on an experiment performed in a real flight situation, we found significant effects of personality combinations in terms of all four outcome measures. Both group C types of instructors and students who are concrete, realistic and have mechanical skills turn out to be the ideal flight crew combination. A structural equation model, fitted to analyse causality among the four response variables, implied that as the heart rate increased, the altitude deviation increased. In addition, as the altitude deviation and personality harmony increased, NASA-TLX increased. The results of this study are expected to provide a theoretical basis for manning the flight crew combinations and thereby enhancing the efficiency of flight training.     

A socio-technical analysis of functional properties in a joint cognitive system: a case study in an aircraft cockpit

Abstract

In a socio-technical work domain, humans, device interfaces and artefacts all affect transformations of information flow. Such transformations, which may involve a change of auditory to visual information & vice versa or alter semantic approximations into spatial proximities from instruments readings, are generally not restricted to solely human cognition. This paper applies a joint cognitive system approach to explore a socio-technical system. A systems ergonomics perspective is achieved by applying a multi-layered division to transformations of information between, and within, human and technical agents. The approach uses the Functional Resonance Analysis Method (FRAM), but abandons the traditional boundary between medium and agent in favour of accepting aircraft systems and artefacts as agents, with their own functional properties and relationships. The joint cognitive system perspective in developing the FRAM model allows an understanding of the effects of task and information propagation, and eventual distributed criticalities, taking advantage of the functional properties of the system, as described in a case study related to the cockpit environment of a DC-9 aircraft.

Practitioner Summary: This research presents the application of one systemic method to understand work systems and performance variability in relation to the transformation of information within a flight deck for a specific phase of flight. By using a joint cognitive systems approach both retrospective and prospective investigation of cockpit challenges will be better understood.

Abbreviations: ATC: air traffic control; ATCO: air traffic controller; ATM: air traffic management; CSE: cognitive systems engineering; DSA: distributed situation awareness; FMS: flight management system; FMV: FRAM model visualize; FRAM: functional resonance analysis method; GF: generalised function; GW: gross weight; HFACS: human factors analysis and classification system; JCS: joint cognitive systems; PF: pilot flying; PNF: pilot not flying; SA: situation awareness; SME: subject matter expert; STAMP: systems theoretic accident model and processes; VBA: visual basic for applications; WAD: work-as-done; WAI: work-as-imagined; ZFW: zero fuel weight     

Interface design on cabin pressurization system affecting pilot's situation awareness: The comparison between digital displays and pointed displays

The fundamental approach to improve pilots’ situation awareness (SA) would be to reorganize and restructure the presentation of information to fit pilot's cognitive model on the flight deck. This would facilitate pilots’ perception, understanding, and projection, hence making it easier to find the relevant targets. Sixty pilots (30 B‐737 pilots and 30 B‐777 pilots) participated in this study to investigate pilots’ SA while interacting with digital displays and moving pointed needle displays on cabin pressurization system. The results have shown significant differences on pilots’ perception, understanding, and overall SA between digital display and pointed display on the flight deck. Pilots significantly preferred the digital design cabin pressurization system, which is consistent with the proximity compatibility principle, and the position of the display on the center instrument panel is easily accessible to both pilots and does not require large head movements. There are some recommendations on the cabin pressurization design including the size of outflow valve position indicator, which should be significantly increased to provided saliency of information; color coding should be used on cabin altitude and differential pressure indicator to mark critical cabin altitude; and standard operating procedures shall include cabin altitude and differential pressure reading by pilot monitoring. The final and completed solution to the issues on the cabin pressurization system is to redesign the scattered pointed displays as integrated digital displays to fit the human‐centered principle.     

Advanced concepts flight simulation facility

The cockpit environment is changing rapidly. New technology allows airborne computerised information, flight automation and data transfer with the ground. By 1995, not only will the pilot's task have changed, but also the tools for doing that task. To provide knowledge and direction for these changes, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Lockheed-Georgia Company have completed three identical Advanced Concepts Flight Simulation Facilities.

Many advanced features have been incorporated into the simulators — e g, cathode ray tube (CRT) displays of flight and systems information operated via touch-screen or voice, print-outs of clearances, cockpit traffic displays, current databases containing navigational charts, weather and flight plan information, and fuel-efficient autopilot control from take-off to touchdown. More importantly, this cockpit is a versatile test bed for studying displays, controls, procedures and crew management in a full-mission context. The facility also has an air traffic control simulation, with radio and data communications, and an outside visual scene with variable weather conditions. These provide a veridical flight environment to evaluate accurately advanced concepts in flight stations.     

基于车载记录仪数据的车辆风险模型实证

随着计算机技术的发展,越来越多的车载记录仪(in-vehicle data recorders,简称IVDR)因为商业目的被安装到了车辆上.在获取更多实时车辆行驶数据的前提下,也为车辆事故原因的分析提供了更加丰富的数据基础.本文通过对车载记录仪的数据进行分析并结合不同车辆的驾驶条件与环境因素开展车辆风险因素研究具有一定的理论价值与实践创新.研究运用大量的行驶数据、地理位置等数据信息,建立多元线性回归模型对车辆风险与事故关系进行研究并对所得结果进行了实证检验.过研究发现车辆风险因素与事故之间的影响关系:行驶里程与发生事故的概率存在非线性关系等.望通过本研究能对车辆风险量化、交通出行规划、车险个性化定价提供一定的借鉴作用.     

Distributed situation awareness in an Airborne Warning and Control System: application of novel ergonomics methodology

This paper applies a distributed theory of situation awareness based upon the analysis of interactions between agents (both human and non-human) in an Airborne Warning and Control System (Boeing E3D Sentry). The basic tenet of this approach is that agents within a system each hold their own component(s) of situation awareness, which may be very different from, but compatible with, other agent’s view of the situation. However, it is argued that it is not always necessary to have complete sharing of this awareness, as different system agents have different purposes. Situation awareness is regarded as a dynamic and collaborative process that binds agents together on tasks on a moment-by-moment basis. Situation awareness is conceptualised as residing at a system, not an individual level. Data were collected from crew-members in theE3D during a series of simulated air battles. These data pertained to task structure, communications between the crew and the collection and analysis of crew actions at critical decision points. All phases of operations were considered. From these data propositional networks were developed in which key knowledge objects were identified. Analysis of these networks clearly shows how the location and nature of distributed situation awareness changes across agents with regard to the phase of operation/air battle.     

Mental performance of air crew following layovers on transzonal flights

Studies of transzonal travel indicate that desynchronization of performance and physiological rhythms occurs following long-haul flights. In an attempt to overcome the problems associated with such desynchronization, air crew are given layover periods en route. The extent to which such layovers are effective in removing performance deficit, however, has not been studied. The present study was designed to remedy this situation by investigating performance levels following layover periods on both eastward and westward long-haul flights. The results suggest that layovers may largely eliminate performance deficits but only if flight times are such that air crew may maintain a reasonably normal sleep-rest cycle.     

飞行模拟机增强型近地告警系统仿真研究与设计

增强型近地告警系统(EGPWS)是现代商用飞机必备系统,飞行模拟机进行EGPWS科目训练,可以有效避免由于飞行机组操作失误导致的可控飞行撞地(CFIT)风险.重点对EGPWS系统增强功能——前视地形显示预警和地形净空层告警功能进行了研究,实现相应的仿真设计.前视地形仿真利用DEM高程数据作为地形数据库,根据设置的显示精度划分地形栅格,判断扫描点落在栅格内的最高地形,地形扫描结果以机载显示系统约定的地形数据传输协议进行数据组包和传输.为展现直观的仿真结果,使用VPS XT软件绘制地形显示和告警显示界面,以模拟机仿真传感器参数作为系统输入,验证了包括地形告警和显示在内的EGPWS系统功能的正确性.     

Effects of Airborne Data Link Communication on Demands, Workload and Situation Awareness

An airborne air-to-ground data link communication interface was evaluated in a multi-sector-planning scenario using an Airbus A 340 full flight simulator. In a close-to-reality experimental setting, eight professional crews performed a flight mission in a mixed voice/data link environment. Experimental factors were the medium (voice vs. data link), workload (low vs. high) and the role in the cockpit (pilot flying vs. pilot non-flying). Data link communication and the usability of the newly developed communication interface were rated positively by the pilots, but there is a clear preference for using a data link only in the phase of cruise. Cognitive demands were determined for selected sections of en-route flight. Demands are affected mainly by increased communication needs. In the pilots’ view, although a data link has no effect on safety or the possibilities of intervention, it causes more problems. The subjective workload, as measured with the NASA Task Load Index, increased moderately under data link conditions. A data link has no general effect on pilots’ situation awareness although flight plan negotiations with a data link cause a distraction of attention from monitoring tasks. The use of a data link has an impact on air-to-ground as well as intra-crew communication. Under data link conditions the pilot non-flying plays a more active role in the cockpit. Before introducing data link communication, several aspects of crew resource management have to be reconsidered. Correspondence and offprint requests to: T. Müller, Technical University of Berlin, Institute of Psychology and Ergonomics, Department of Human–Machine Systems, Jebensstrasse 1, 10623 Berlin, Germany.     

Pilot competencies as components of a dynamic human‐machine system

This paper formulates a theoretical model of flight deck team performance as a dynamic human‐machine system, later referred to as CRM‐DYMO (Crew Resources Management‐DYnamic MOdel). The model identifies human and machine subsystems. The human subsystem describes the activities taken by the flight crew and the machine subsystem describes the changes in the aircraft's state. The human subsystem's output forms an input for the machine subsystem, and the machine subsystem's output feeds back to the human system creating a closed loop system. Pilots’ performance are described as competencies, which form part of the elements in the human subsystem. This paper concentrates only on CRM competencies as defined by the International Civil Aviation Authority and the International Air Transport Association. In addition to the detailed conceptual model of the human subsystem and associated competencies, the approach is illustrated with reference to two accident case studies. These demonstrate how CRM‐DYMO can assist in analyzing CRM and help in identifying how the different system components interact. Although the case studies demonstrate the benefits of CRM‐DYMO, they merely serve as a starting point to understand how CRM works and will hopefully encourage supporting quantitative simulation modeling and empirical studies.     

Robust crew pairing for managing extra flights

This paper discusses a modeling approach to robust crew pairing when a set of extra flights is likely to be added to the regular flight schedule. The set of these possible extra flights is known at the planning stage. We demonstrate that these extra flights may be incorporated into the schedule if necessary by modifying the planned crew pairings appropriately and without delaying or canceling existing flights. To this end, we either identify a pair of crews whose schedules may be (partially) swapped while adding an extra flight into the schedule or show that an extra flight may be inserted into the schedule of a crew without affecting others. We note that deadheading may be necessary in either case. For these two types of solutions, we define the appropriate feasibility rules with respect to the common airline regulations. We then propose two robust mathematical programming models that consider incorporating such solutions into the set of selected pairings while keeping the increase in the crew cost at an acceptable level. The baseline solution for comparison is found by a conventional crew pairing model in the literature which ignores robustness at the planning stage and relies on recovery procedures at the time of operation. We also propose the variations of the two models, where the double counting of the possible solutions across extra flights is prevented. Finally, we conduct computational experiments on a set of data generated from the actual data of an airline company. We solve the crew pairing problem both with the proposed robust models and the conventional model. Our results demonstrate the benefits of the proposed modeling approach and indicate that the proposed robust models provide natural options to recovery without disrupting the existing flights at a relatively small incremental cost, which is visible at the planning stage.     

飞行再现系统的实现及其在飞行参数处理中的应用

该文针对飞行参数地面处理软件中图形功能的不足 ,将计算机图形技术应用于飞行参数信息处理中 ,提出了飞行再现系统。文中详细地介绍了飞行再现系统实现过程中纹理采集与处理、飞行数据处理、模型构造和软件编制的方法 ,说明了飞行再现系统在飞行参数信息处理中的应用 ,具有较强的实用性。该系统目前已应用于空军飞行事故调查工作中     

Display panel design of a general utility helicopter by applying quantitative and qualitative approaches

The flight deck is the ultimate human–machine interface application. It uses human senses of touch and sight in a safety‐critical situation. Display systems, present on a flight deck, are complex environments causing excessive mental workload, and the consequences of errors can be catastrophic. To prevent any human error, a user‐friendly display panel must be designed. In this research the best natural dialog between the crew and interface is considered while reflecting user perspective to design by applying quantitative and qualitative approaches; in this way, proper positions of analogue indicators on the front of the display panel are determined. Multi‐Criteria Decision Making algorithms are employed as a quantitative approach. To test whether the decision‐making preferences are consistent with a quasi‐concave, a quasi‐convex, and a linear utility function, a combined algorithm is applied. Due to the form of utility function, an algorithm finding the most preferred alternative of decision making is used. The aim of this approach is to find an order in which to locate each indicator to suitable classes. Card‐Sorting methodology is used for the qualitative research of the same problem. Results of two different approaches are compared. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.