Active control of properties of concrete: a (p)review

Concrete properties to a large extent depend on mix design and processing, currently leaving only limited options to actively modify concrete properties during or after casting. This paper gives a (p)review on a more advanced active control of properties of concrete, based on the application of external signals to trigger an intended response in the material, either in fresh or hardened state. Current practices in concrete industry that could be considered as active control are briefly summarized. More advanced active control mechanisms as studied in other fields, e.g. based on hydrogels and other functional polymers, are reviewed and some principles are listed. A specific focus is further given on potential methods for active rheology control. Based on the concepts developed in other fields, substantial progress could be made in order to achieve active control of fresh and hardened concrete properties. However, several challenges remain, like the stability and functioning of the responsive material in a cementitious environment, the applicability of the control signal in a cementitious material, and the economy, logistics and safety of a control system on a construction site or in precast industry. Finding solutions to these challenges will lead to marvelous opportunities in general, and for 3D and even 4D printing more particularly.     

Filling ability and plastic settlement of self-compacting concrete

The use of self-compacting concrete (SCC) facilitates the placing of concrete by eliminating the need for compaction by vibration. Given the highly flowable nature of such concrete, care is required to ensure excellent filling ability and adequate stability. This is especially important in deep structural members and wall clements where concrete can block the flow, segregate and exhibit bleeding and settlement which can result in local defects that can reduce mechanical properties, durability and quality of surface finish.This paper shows results of an investigation of fresh properties of self-compacting concrete, such as filling ability measured by slump flow and flow time (measured by Orimet) and plastic fresh settlement measured in a columin. The SCC mixes incorporated various combinations of fine inorganic powders and admixtures. The slump flow of all SCCs was greater than 580 mm and the time in which the slumping concrete reached 500 mm was less than 3 s. The flow time was less than 5 s. The results on SCCs were compared to a control mix. The compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of SCCs were also measured.The effects of water/powder ratio, slump and nature of the sand on the fresh settlement were also evaluated. The volume of coarse aggregate and the dosage of superplasticizer were kept constant. It can be concluded that the settlement of fresh self-compacting concrete increased with the increase in water/powder ratio and slump. The nature of sand influenced the maximum settlement.     

Durability of recycled aggregate concrete designed with equivalent mortar volume method

Results of a comprehensive investigation about the durability of structural-grade concrete made with recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) are presented. The RCA-concrete mixes were proportioned using a new concrete mix design method, termed the equivalent mortar volume (EMV) method. The EMV method is based on the hypothesis that RCA is a composite material comprising mortar and natural aggregate; therefore, when proportioning a concrete mixture containing RCA, one must account for the relative amount and properties of each the two components and adjust both the fresh coarse aggregate and fresh paste content of the mix accordingly. Tests were conducted to study the freeze–thaw, chloride penetration and carbonation resistances of the mixes proportioned by the EMV method and by the conventional method. Results of the test showed that RCA-concrete mixes proportioned by the EMV method have higher resistance to freeze–thaw action, chloride penetration and carbonation than those designed with the conventional method, and they satisfy the current requirements for concrete exposed to severe environments.     

Mix design method for self compacting metakaolin concrete with different properties of coarse aggregate

This study deals with a proposed mix design method for SCC utilizing different properties of coarse aggregate. The work was conducted in three phases, i.e. paste, mortar and concrete to facilitate the mix design process. Initial investigation on cement paste determined the basis for water cement ratio and superplasticizer dosage for the concrete. For the study on mortar, metakaolin (MK) as pozzolan was used at replacement levels of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% by weight of cement. Self compactability of mortars was obtained by adding suitable materials such as mineral admixtures and superplasticizer which provided a sufficient balance between flowability and viscosity of the mix. The optimum MK replacement level for cement was 10% from the viewpoint of workability and strength. Flowability of mortar decreased with the use of metakaolin. Moreover, strength of mortar increased when the optimum replacement level of pozzolan was used. Different fresh concrete tests were adopted. The results obtained for fresh concrete properties showed that flowability of concrete increased with increase flowability of mortar. The mixes which contained coarse aggregate with lower volume, small size, and continuous grading affected positively the fresh properties of SCC. Finally, the mix design method used was successful in producing SCC with different coarse aggregate properties.     

Simulating macroscopic behavior of self-compacting mixtures with DEM

Development of proper rheological models and suitable numerical methods are necessary for a thorough understanding of the basic flow properties of fresh mortar or concrete. Main challenge for models is to find a quantitative correlation between the model parameters and the properties and proportions of the mix ingredients. This paper presents a modeling approach for the rheological behavior of fresh self-compacting mixtures using a Discrete Element Method (DEM). The employed method is based on a conceptual idea where the grain-paste-grain interactions are explicitly described as an interactive two-phase paste-bridge system. Each mixture is considered to be an assembly of mutually interacting “grain-paste-grain” systems which can be characterized according to the mix composition with help of the “excess paste theory”. Macroscopic slump flow predictions are evaluated by laboratory tests. Simulations and experimental test results show good agreement.     

Numerical study of the interfaces of 3D‐printed concrete using discrete element method

3D concrete printing is an additive manufacturing method which reduces the time and improves the efficiency of the construction process. Structural behavior of printed elements is strongly influenced by the properties of the material and the interface surfaces. The printing process creates interface surfaces between layers in the horizontal and vertical directions. The bond strength between layers is the most critical property of printed elements. In this paper, the structural behavior of printed elements is studied using the discrete element method. The material is modelled using discrete particles with bonding between them. A new discrete model of a multilayer geometry is presented to study the behavior of the interfaces of printed concrete. The layers are made up of randomly placed particles to simulate the heterogeneous nature of concrete. The numerical model is developed to simulate the flexural behavior of multilayer specimens. A four‐point flexural test is simulated considering the interface surfaces between layers. This numerical model provides relevant results to improve the behavior of this kind of structural elements. The aim of this work is to provide a discrete element model to predict the mechanical behavior of 3D concrete printed components.     

Statistical relationship between mix properties and the interfacial transition zone around embedded rebar

The relationship between concrete mix properties and the properties of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) formed around embedded rebar was investigated. Multiple samples of various mix compositions and bar orientations were prepared so as to represent common concrete technology. Water-to-cement ratios varied from 0.40 to 0.65 and powder (cement + limestone filler) contents ranged from 362 kg/m³ to 564 kg/m³. Over 1300 BSE images of the steel–concrete interface were taken and analyzed automatically. Statistical methods were used to identify correlations between ITZ properties and mix composition or fresh mix properties.A single large void was identified beneath all horizontal bars regardless of concrete composition. The ITZ around vertical bars was more uniform and extended around the entire rebar. No clear relationship was found between ITZ thickness and mix composition or fresh mix properties for either vertical or horizontal bar orientations. The degree of ITZ variability beneath horizontal bars clearly depends, however, on the bleeding properties of the mix. The distance from steel surface to the closest concrete solid, which influences the chemistry over the surface of the steel, is affected by precipitation of hydration products in horizontal bars, but not by mix composition.     

Concrete with recycled aggregates: the Portuguese experimental research

The main objective of this study is to define expedient procedures to estimate the properties of structural concrete that contains recycled aggregates. Experimental results from Portuguese research, most of which supervised by the first author, were used to establish a relationship between some properties of hardened concrete (compressive strength, splitting and flexural tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, abrasion resistance, shrinkage, water absorption, carbonation penetration and chloride penetration) and the density and water absorption of the aggregates’ mixture and also the compressive strength of concrete at the age of 7 days. The workability and density were also analysed for fresh concrete. The graphic analysis of each property shows the relationship between those for recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) mixes and a reference mix using natural aggregates only (RC). The density and water absorption of all the aggregates in the mixture, for each substitution rate, were calculated in order to represent the exact proportion of each type of aggregate (natural and recycled). This method proved to be viable to estimate the variation of the properties of concrete with recycled aggregates by obtaining results for the three parameters mentioned above. This innovative procedure can contribute to increasing the use of recycled aggregates in the construction sector and make it a sustainable activity.     

Fly ash concrete-potential without misuse

This paper presents a comprehensive review of the engineering properties of fly ash concrete in its fresh and hardened form. It is shown that two major factors influence the properties of fly ash concrete—its intrinsic variation in composition, and the philosophy of mix proportioning adopted to produce the concrete. The effects of ash variability can be covered by three basic criteria of mix proportioning—namely, low water-cementitious ratio, inclusion of a water-reducing plasticizer, and an early and long curing period. It is then shown that these criteria can be utilized to produce concrete containing 50% ash replacement and having 40 to 60 MPa 28-day strength, with high workability, low water/cementitious ratios of 0.30 to 0.45, and one-day strengths of 10 to 20 MPa. Properties of strength, elasticity, shrinkage and creep are reported, and durability aspects briefly discussed. The paper unfolds the secret of utilizing the full pozzolanic potential of fly ash in practice.     

Mix design for self-compacting palm oil clinker concrete based on particle packing

The consumption of waste materials in self-compacting concrete (SCC) in the construction industry will not only help to conserve the natural resources but also promote sustainability in preserving the environment. Palm oil clinker (POC) is a waste by-product from the incineration process of oil palm shells and fibres. They are porous and lightweight in nature, which makes them suitable for use as a lightweight aggregate (LWA). In this study, a new procedure was employed to obtain the mix design based on the particle packing (PP) concept to ensure the fresh and hardened properties of SCC are achieved. The actual packing level of aggregate and paste volume is integrated into the proportioning method to obtain the final mix design. The proposed procedure was verified by evaluating the SCC formed for self-compactability and mechanical properties. Based on the overall performance of fresh and hardened properties, it can be deduced that the procedure satisfied the requirements for SCC. The satisfactory results indicate that the mix design can be employed not only for POC but also for a variety of combinations of aggregate.     

自密实混凝土稳定性机理及其影响因素研究新进展

自密实混凝土浇筑成型后发生离析会对力学性能和耐久性能产生不同程度的危害,这一问题决定了自密实混凝土在满足施工性能的同时必须具有足够的稳定性。而自密实混凝土高流动性、高填充性及高间隙通过性等优异的工作性能特征,又决定了其拌合物的稳定性高度敏感。从静态稳定性和动态稳定性两方面分别阐述了自密实混凝土的稳定性机理,探讨了自密实混凝土静态稳定性和动态稳定性的表征方法,从配合比参数、拌合物流变性能、施工工艺等方面讨论了影响自密实混凝土稳定性的因素,提出了自密实混凝土稳定性的研究前景。     

细骨料对混凝土和易性的影响及控制措施

细骨料作为混凝土结构的重要组成部分,对新拌混凝土的和易性有着很大的影响。如何合理使用细骨料以及研制出一种能够有效减小混凝土中细骨料对减水剂性能影响的助剂,从而拌制出具有良好流动性、粘聚牲及抗离析的混凝土对于保证施工质量和施工效率具有重要意义。     

Testing Concrete E‐modulus at Very Early Ages Through Several Techniques: An Inter‐laboratory Comparison

The design of concrete structures is based on calculation rules, which often do not take into account the very early age behaviour of the material. However, during this period, structural concrete is subjected to strains due to the hydration process of cement. If these strains are restrained by concrete itself or surrounding boundaries, stresses start to build up that can lead to the formation of cracks. Among the parameters involved in the stress build up, the stiffness evolution is of major importance. This paper reports the use of eight different techniques aimed at stiffness evolution assessment, applied on the same concrete mix, in a round robin experimental test within three laboratories. The observations are compared after having expressed the results at the same equivalent age. Both the loading stress rate and amplitude are observed to have an effect of limited importance on the determination of the quasi‐static elastic modulus, which might be explained by very short term creep. Ultrasonic measurements provide values of E‐modulus that are higher than the values provided by the quasi‐static tests at the time of the concrete setting. Similar mechanisms associated to very short term creep could explain the difference between the quasi‐static and high‐frequency elastic modulus.     

Statistical models to predict fresh and hardened properties of self-consolidating concrete

Several material properties and mix design parameters affect the performance of self-consolidating concrete (SCC) and need to be taken into consideration to enhance the fresh and hardened properties of the concrete. A factorial design was conducted to model the effect of mixture parameters and material properties on workability, mechanical properties, and visco-elastic properties of SCC used for the construction of precast/prestressed structural elements. The modeled mixture parameters included the binder content, binder type, water-to-cementitious materials ratio, sand-to-total aggregate ratio (S/A), and dosage of thickening-type viscosity-modifying admixture. In total, 16 SCC mixtures were investigated to establish a factorial design with five main factors. Three replicate SCC mixtures were prepared to estimate the degree of the experimental error for the modeled responses. The mixtures were evaluated to determine several key responses that affect the performance of precast, prestressed concrete, including the filling ability, passing ability, filling capacity, stability, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, flexural strength, autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage, and creep. The derived statistical models enable to quantify the level of significance of each of the five investigated parameters on fresh and hardened properties of SCC, which can simplify the test protocol needed to optimize SCC. Based on the results derived from the factorial design, recommendations for the proportioning of SCC in terms of workability, mechanical properties, and visco-elastic properties are given.     

ECC材料力学性能与本构关系研究进展

混凝土在国内外应用广泛,但普通混凝土材料存在抗拉强度低、韧性差和脆性特征明显等缺点。自20世纪90年代采用性能驱动设计方法(PDDA)成功配制工程水泥基复合材料(ECC)后,仅在几年时间里,ECC材料受到了研究者的广泛关注。相比普通混凝土,采用PDDA得到的ECC的外掺纤维与基体界面有良好的粘结作用,这使得ECC材料具有应变硬化和多缝开展等重要特征。由于ECC优异的力学性能,使用其替代混凝土便成为解决混凝土脆性、裂缝开展等相关问题的一种有效的新途径。 然而, ECC的制备极不容易,由于基体胶凝材料产地不同或者纤维种类不同,某一地区配制成功的配合比大多无法适用于其他地区。因此,根据当地情况进行ECC材料的配合比设计仍然是各国学者青睐的课题。一方面,欲使用ECC代替混凝土用于建筑结构等,就必定要深入研究ECC材料层面的基本力学性能。建立ECC的本构模型对ECC构件甚至结构层面的研究都十分重要,但相关研究较少。另一方面,由于ECC材料良好的裂缝控制能力,国内外学者也致力于使用ECC材料进行结构加固修复的研究。 各国学者先后成功配制极限拉应变大于3%的ECC,这为进一步广泛开展ECC的研究和应用创造了很好的条件,用于配制ECC的纤维种类也更加丰富。在ECC拉伸、压缩、弯曲和剪切等大量的材料试验研究基础上,近几年,一些科研团队开始尝试用ECC部分甚至完全代替混凝土来浇筑梁、柱等构件,然后进行ECC构件层次的力学性能和耐久性等研究;另有部分研究人员也致力于建立ECC的本构模型,开展数值模拟分析。此外,由于ECC优异的力学性能,也有学者提出可以采用3D打印技术来建造无筋ECC建筑。 本文从ECC材料层面的单轴单调拉压力学性能、单轴循环拉压滞回性能、多轴力学性能及破坏准则、ECC与普通钢筋和纤维增强塑料(FRP)筋两种筋材的粘结性能方面进行综述,相应介绍了几种本构模型并简要对其进行评价,以期为用ECC代替混凝土进行建筑结构设计、选取本构模型进行数值模拟分析、编制规范和技术规程等提供参考。最后,对今后进一步开展ECC力学性能研究、建立本构模型提出展望。     

Influence of fibre-aggregate interaction on some properties of steel fibre reinforced concrete

In the practical applications of fibre reinforced concrete, particularly for load-bearing purposes, it is desirable to incorporate coarse aggregates for economic and other reasons. Tests are reported in this paper in which the fibre-aggregate interaction is related to the properties of steel fibre concrete both in the fresh and hardened states. It is shown that compactibility, flexural and compressive strengths are reduced progressively by the presence of coarse aggregates. From the test results, a mix design for fibre concrete containing coarse aggregates to produce twice the flexural strength of the unreinforced matrix without bundling of fibres is presented. The data presented on flexural strength show good agreement with theory.     

Influence of recycled aggregate on slump and bleeding of fresh concrete

The recycling of construction and demolition (C&;D) waste as a source of aggregates for the production of new concrete has attracted increasing interests from the construction industry. While the environmental benefits of using recycled aggregates are well accepted, some unsolved problems prevent this type of material from wide application in structural concrete. One of the major problems with the use of recycled aggregates in structural concrete is their high water absorption capacity which leads to difficulties in controlling the properties of fresh concrete and consequently influences the strength and durability of hardened concrete. This paper presents an experimental study on the properties of fresh concrete prepared with recycled aggregates. Concrete mixes with a target compressive strength of 35 MPa are prepared with the use of recycled aggregates at the levels from 0 to 100% of the total coarse aggregate. The influence of recycled aggregate on the slump and bleeding are investigated. The effect of delaying the starting time of bleeding tests and the effect of using fly ash on the bleeding of concrete are explored.     

A comprehensive investigation into the effect of aging and coarse aggregate size and volume on mechanical properties of self-compacting concrete

The popularity of self-compacting concrete (SCC), as an innovative construction materials in concrete industry, has increased all over the world in recent decades. SCC offers a safer construction process and durable concrete structure due to its typical fresh concrete behavior which is achieved by SCC’s significantly different mixture composition. This modification of mix composition may have significant effect on the hardened mechanical properties of SCC as compared to normal vibrated concrete (NVC). Therefore, it is necessary to know whether the use of all rules and relations that have been formulated for NVC in current design codes based on years of experience are also valid for SCC. Furthermore, this study represents an extensive evaluation and comparison between mechanical properties of SCC using current international codes and prediction equations proposed by other researchers. Thus, in this experimental study, major mechanical properties of SCC are investigated for twelve SCC mixes with wide spectrum of different variables i.e. maximum coarse aggregate size, coarse aggregate volume and aging. In the present study, an extensive body of data reported by many researchers for SCC and NVC has been used to validate the obtained results.     

Influence of recycled aggregates and high contents of fly ash on concrete fresh properties

This study presents the fresh properties of concrete with supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) and recycled concrete aggregates (RCA), with emphasis on the feasibility of using high volumes of fly ash (FA) in RCA concrete. For this purpose, two mix families (0% coarse RCA and 100% coarse RCA) were produced, both with and without superplasticizers (SP). The coarse natural aggregates (NA) were replaced with coarse RCA at 0% and 100%, respectively. For each of the mentioned families, three incorporation levels (0%, 50% and 100%) of fine RCA were used with 0%, 30% and 60% of FA, resulting in 28 compositions. Each mix was tested in the fresh state by means of slump, density and air content. The results of this study show that RCA decreased the slump of concrete mixes, but the required water content can be minimized by incorporation FA. Regardless of the water absorption of the aggregates, for a given fine RCA incorporation ratio and the same ratio of FA, no increase in water content is required to obtain the same target slump as in the reference concrete. On the other hand, for a given coarse RCA incorporation ratio, a five times lower FA ratio is enough to obtain the same target slump as in the reference concrete. Air voids in concrete mixes were more affected by the shape of the aggregates than by their water absorption. The air content of concrete mixes increased as the incorporation levels of FA and RCA increased. However, in comparison with the individual effects, the air content decreased by combining the incorporation of both FA and RCA. Moreover, the rate of reduction in fresh density by increasing the incorporation of RCA and FA was similar in concrete mixes with and without SP.     

Evaluation of the consistency of fiber reinforced cementitious composites

The rheological properties of fresh concrete, mortar or cement paste are among the most important parameters when cementitious building materials are placed. New material designs, like high or ultrahigh performance concretes, include the addition of a high volume of fibers to the fresh mix influencing its workability properties. However, the analysis of the rheological properties of fiber reinforced cementitious composites is difficult. Conventional methods mostly do not apply, especially when a high fiber content and relatively stiff mixtures are used. For this reason, a new method was developed to evaluate the workability of fiber reinforced composites. This method was applied to carbon and PVA fiber reinforced high performance composites and was used to optimize the rheological properties of these composites for an application in a centrifugation casting process.