Damage assessment in layered composites using spectral analysis and Lamb wave

Piezo-ceramic transducers of the surface mounted type are commonly used for structural health monitoring (SHM) techniques. But, there is a disadvantage to use piezo-ceramic transducers of the surface mounted type in Lamb wave application. Due to the symmetric and antisymmetric Lamb wave modes generated by the surface mounted piezo-ceramic transducers simultaneously, the received signals are very complex and it is difficult to extract damage information from the signals.

In this paper, the practical method for SHM was proposed using piezo-ceramic transducers of the surface mounted type and Lamb wave. In order to overcome the difficulties in the signal processing of the simultaneous modes, the symmetric and antisymmetric modes were separated by using the two sensors bonded on the opposite surfaces at the same point. Also, spectral analyses of the separated symmetric and antisymmetric Lamb waves showed that each mode propagated with different frequency characteristics in the exciting frequency range.

By making use of these findings, the changes of power spectrum density in characteristic frequency band of symmetric and antisymmetric modes are proportional to the delamination size in quasi-isotropic Gr/Ep laminates. Therefore, this paper presents the damage assessment technique to extract damage information from the complicated PZT signals that could not be interpreted in time domain.     

Single Mode Tuning Effects on Lamb Wave Time Reversal with Piezoelectric Wafer Active Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring

Lamb wave time reversal method is a new and tempting baseline-free damage detection technique for structural health monitoring. With this method, certain types of damage can be detected without baseline data. However, the application of this method using piezoelectric wafer active sensors (PWAS) is complicated by the existence of at least two Lamb wave modes at any given frequency, and by the dispersion nature of the Lamb wave modes existing in thin-wall structures. The theory of PWAS-related Lamb wave time reversal has not yet been fully studied. This paper addresses this problem by developing a theoretical model for the analysis of PWAS-related Lamb wave time reversal based on the exact solutions of the Rayleigh-Lamb wave equation. The theoretical model is first used to predict the existence of single-mode Lamb waves. Then the time reversal behavior of single-mode and two-mode Lamb waves is studied numerically. The advantages of single-mode tuning in the application of time reversal damage detection are highlighted. The validity of the proposed theoretical model is verified through experimental studies. In addition, a similarity metric for judging time invariance of Lamb wave time reversal is presented. It is shown that, under certain condition, the use of PWAS-tuned single-mode Lamb waves can greatly improve the effectiveness of the time-reversal damage detection procedure.     

Group velocity and characteristic wave curves of Lamb waves in composites: Modeling and experiments

The propagation characteristics of Lamb waves in composites, with emphasis on group velocity and characteristic wave curves, are investigated theoretically and experimentally. In particular, the experimental study focuses on the existence of multiple higher-order Lamb wave modes that can be observed from piezoelectric sensors by the excitation of ultrasonic frequencies. Using three-dimensional (3-D) elasticity theory, the exact dispersion relations governed by transcendental equations are numerically solved for an infinite number of possible wave modes. For symmetric laminates, a robust method by imposing boundary conditions on the mid-plane and top surface is proposed to separate symmetric and anti-symmetric wave modes. A new semi-exact method is developed to calculate group velocities of Lamb waves in composites. Meanwhile, three characteristic wave curves: velocity, slowness, and wave curves are adopted to analyze the angular dependency of Lamb wave propagation. The dispersive and anisotropic behavior of Lamb waves in a two different types of symmetric laminates is studied in detail theoretically. In the experimental study, two surface-mounted piezoelectric actuators are excited either symmetric or anti-symmetric wave modes with narrowband signals, and a Gabor wavelet transform is used to extract group velocities from arrival times of Lamb wave received by a piezoelectric sensor. In comparison with the results from the theory and experiment, it is confirmed that multiple higher-order Lamb waves can be excited from piezoelectric actuators and the measured group velocities agree well with those from 3-D elasticity theory.     

基于传递阻抗能量的无基准Lamb波裂纹检测

该文提出了一种获取压电陶瓷(PZT)传感器间Lamb波传递阻抗的方法,以实现对板结构裂纹的无基准快速检测。该方法从两组并排的PZT元件间提取包含Lamb波转换模式的损伤特征信号,对特征信号进行分类并求出其传递阻抗,通过比较传递阻抗的能量差异来判断裂纹是否存在。首先通过有限元仿真研究了裂纹导致的Lamb波模式转换现象以及PZT极化特性对各模式之间相对相位的影响,分析了所提出的方法的可行性;进一步通过在铝板上的实验验证了该方法的有效性。研究表明该文所提出的方法无需选择最优的激励频率和采样时间即可实现对裂纹的快速检测,具有较强的鲁棒性和适用性。     

薄板钢结构超声检测Lamb波激励与模态分析

运用超声Lamb波对薄板钢结构进行检测,采用斜入射方式实施Lamb波的激励,并对检测信号进行模态分析。经实验发现选择合适的频率/入射角组合可实现对Lamb波模态的选择和控制,实现对检测对象的检测策略,并具有一定的工程应用价值。     

基于有限元方法的双层材料激光超声数值模拟

采用有限元方法数值模拟了单脉冲激光热弹激发双层材料中的超声波,得到了材料的上下表面的应力场分布。通过对铝板中的波形进行快速傅里叶变换得到频率信号,计算出波包群速度,判断出材料中兰姆波的模态。结果表明：受基底影响,在双层材料的上层铝板中得到了三种模态的兰姆波。该研究为复合材料激光超声的应用研究提供了新的途径。     

基于Lamb波和Hilbert变换的复合材料T型加筋损伤监测

为了监测整体成型复合材料结构的损伤,提出了一种基于Lamb波和Hilbert变换的能量损伤指数。首先,通过应用Hilbert变换提取Lamb波信号的波形包络;然后选取具有最大峰值的波包,将此波包在结构出现损伤后的能量变化值与损伤前的能量之比作为损伤指示;该方法不需要选择特定的Lamb波模式,克服了Lamb波在复合材料结构中存在的频散、多模式及模式转换给信号分析带来的困难;最后在复合材料T型加筋的损伤演化试验中,对该能量损伤指数进行了应用验证研究。研究结果表明：该能量损伤指数可以用于复合材料T型加筋的损伤监测,当能量损伤指数（EDI）值达到0.62时,所研究的复合材料T型加筋确定有损伤产生。     

A New Inverse Algorithm for Tomographic Reconstruction of Damage Images Using Lamb Waves

Lamb wave tomography (LWT) is a potential and efficient technique for non-destructive tomographic reconstruction of damage images in structural components or materials. A new two-stage inverse algorithm with a small amount of scanning data for quickly reconstructing damage images in aluminum and CFRP laminated plates was proposed in this paper. Due to its high sensitivity to damages, the amplitude decrease of transmitted Lamb waves after travelling through the inspected region was employed as a key signal parameter related to the attenuation of Lamb waves in propagation routes. A through-thickness circular hole and a through-thickness elliptical hole in two aluminum plates, and an impact-induced invisible internal delamination in a CFRP laminated plate were used to validate the effectiveness and reliability of the proposed method. It was concluded that the present new algorithm was capable of reconstructing the images of the above mentioned various damages successfully with much less experimental data compared with those needed by some traditional techniques.     

Development of smart composite structures with small-diameter fiber Bragg grating sensors for damage detection: Quantitative evaluation of delamination length in CFRP laminates using Lamb wave sensing

The authors and Hitachi Cable, Ltd. have recently developed small-diameter optical fiber and its fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor for embedment inside a lamina of composite laminates without strength reduction. The outside diameters of the cladding and polyimide coating are 40 and 52 μm, respectively. First, a brief summary is presented for applications of small-diameter FBG sensors to damage monitoring in composite structures. Then, we propose a new damage detection system for quantitative evaluation of delamination length in CFRP laminates using Lamb wave sensing. In this system, a piezo-ceramic actuator generates Lamb waves in a CFRP laminate. After the waves propagate in the laminate, transmitted waves are received by an FBG sensor attached on or embedded in the laminate using a newly developed high-speed optical wavelength interrogation system. This system was applied to detect interlaminar delamination in CFRP cross-ply laminates. When the Lamb waves passed through the delamination, the amplitude decreased and a new wave mode appeared. These phenomena could be well simulated using a finite element analysis. From the changes in the amplitude ratio and the arrival time of the new mode depending on the delamination length, it was found that this system could evaluate the delamination length quantitatively. Furthermore, small-diameter FBG sensors were embedded in a double-lap type coupon specimen, and the debonding progress could be evaluated using the wavelet transform.     

基于HHT的多模式Lamb波走时提取

薄板超声Lamb波层析成象研究中,走时是重要的信号特征,但多模式和频散特点给单一模式走时提取带来困难,一般信息提取技术对Lamb波分析较难有理想结果。该文提出利用HHT方法分析信号,先利用经验模式分解成本征模态函数,然后进行Hilbert变换分析边际谱并提取单一模式。与FFT、小波变换分析对比,HHT方法较好的反映了Lamb波信号多模式的随时间、频率分布。与小波变换提取走时数据结果相对比,HHT方法所得走时数据用来反演的图象更接近缺陷真实尺寸。     

基于含金属芯压电纤维与Lamb波的一维结构损伤定位研究

含金属芯压电纤维(Metal-core Piezoelectric Ceramic Fiber,MPF)是一种新型压电功能器件.介绍了MPF的结构及其对圆形压电片激励Lamb波的传感响应模型.利用Gabor小波变换计算损伤反射信号到达时间延迟的原理,把MPF传感单一模式Lamb波在一维结构中进行了损伤定位研究.研究结果表明:MPF可以进行Lamb波的单一模式传感,采用Gabor小波变换计算损伤反射信号到达时间延迟效果较好,损伤定位精度较高.     

强噪声下碳纤维增强树脂复合材料结构Lamb波层析损伤成像方法

Lamb波因其检测范围广、对缺陷敏感性高等特点在复合材料无损检测中广泛应用。但强噪声环境给有效信号的提取带来难度,影响损伤位置判定精度。针对该问题,提出了一种在强噪声背景下基于计盒维数和Lamb波层析成像技术的损伤定位成像方法。首先通过仿真分析了Lamb波在碳纤维增强树脂(CFRP)复合材料板损伤前后传播的特性。在选定的复合材料板上均匀布置圆形传感器阵列,以粘结质量块改变结构局部刚度的形式模拟真实损伤;其次每个传感器依次作为激励器产生Lamb波,其他传感器采集有无损伤下的响应信号,采用小波变换进行信号去噪。将去噪后的信号添加不同等级的白噪声实现噪声干扰;最后采用计盒维数计算有无损伤的信号差异确定损伤因子,并通过概率成像算法实现损伤的定位成像。实验结果表明,在强噪声环境中单损伤与多损伤成像定位最大和平均误差分别为11.18 mm和6.88 mm,该方法无需信号降噪技术,且避免了多损伤时复杂反射信号的提取过程,在强噪声下复合材料损伤定位识别方面具有较大的潜力。     

复合材料板脱层损伤的时间反转成像监测

基于时间反转理论,对主动Lamb波复合材料结构脱层损伤成像监测技术进行了研究。分析了时间反转方法的理论基础以及对波源的信号聚焦过程。根据信号传播自身的特性,研究采用时间反转聚焦方法使损伤散射信号能量叠加放大,从而提高信号的信噪比,分析给出了具体的损伤信号时间反转聚焦增强过程;利用时间反转法对波源的自适应聚焦能力,重建信号传播波动图,通过信号聚焦显示损伤位置和区域。在玻璃纤维复合材料板上的真实损伤实验结果表明,该方法能有效提高损伤散射信号的能量,较为准确地监测出损伤的位置、大致范围等特征。     

Effects of local stiffness changes and delamination on Lamb wave transmission using surface-mounted piezoelectric transducers

The paper presents a set of numerical results on the use of surface mounted piezoelectric transducers to analyse the effects of impact damage and delamination of plate-like structures on the Lamb wave mode. The effects of the size, properties and orientation of the damage upon a propagating Lamb wave is qualitatively determined. In this paper, impact damage was simulated by a local change in the stiffness of the material in the structure and a delamination. The effects on the transmission of the incident Lamb wave when it propagates through a region of change in density are analysed. This paper will also demonstrate how the properties of a propagating Lamb wave can be affected by the existence of a delamination in a plate.     

Lamb wave generation and reception with time-delay periodic linear arrays: a BEM simulation and experimental study

A time-delay periodic linear array model has been proposed for Lamb wave generation and reception in plates. The unilateral guided wave emitting and receiving have been achieved by applying the interference principle in the array designs. A hybrid BEM technique has been developed and applied to simulate the wave generation procedure with such arrays and to analyze the performance. Experimental results also are presented for two typical time-delay periodic arrays to qualitatively validate the theoretical designs. The effects of the array parameters on the array performance, such as the selectivity of Lamb modes and effectiveness of Lamb wave generation, are investigated through the 2-D phase velocity-frequency spectrum analyses as well as Lamb mode wave structure calculations.     

CSM在基于Lamb波的结构损伤检测中的应用

在基于Lamb波的结构损伤检测中往往不可避免地遇到结构中多个损伤引起的反射波信号相干问题而对检测精度造成影响。考虑到阵列信号处理中的空间谱估计可以对信号源进行辨别和定位,尤其是在信号的波达方向(Direction of Arrival, DOA)估计上的优越性,将其应用于基于Lamb波的结构损伤检测中以获得准确的结构损伤信息。于是,该文采用空间谱估计中相干信号子空间方法(Coherent Signal Subspace Method, CSM)解决了相干信号问题。以一个损伤结构的仿真分析为例,验证了CSM方法在基于Lamb波的结构损伤检测中处理相干信号的可行性。结果表明,无论是结构损伤和边界反射引起的信号相干或两个结构损伤引起的信号相干,依然可以通过该方法获得准确的结构损伤信息。     

A damage identification technique for CF/EP composite laminates using distributed piezoelectric transducers

In this study, a damage identification approach was developed for carbon fibre/epoxy composite laminates with localized internal delamination. Propagation of the Lamb wave in laminates and its interaction with the delamination were examined. The fundamental symmetric Lamb wave mode, S₀, and the lowest order shear wave mode, S₀^′, were chosen to predict damage location. A real-time active diagnosis system was therefore established. This technique uses distributed piezoelectric transducers to generate and monitor the ultrasonic Lamb wave with narrowband frequency. The two-way switches were employed to minimize the number of transducers. A signal-processing scheme based on the time–frequency spectrographic analysis was utilised to extract useful diagnostic information. Also, an optimal identification method was applied on damage searching procedure to reduce errors and obtain the diagnostic results promptly. Experiments were conducted on [0/−45/45/90]_s CF/EP laminates to verify this diagnosis system. The results obtained show that satisfactory detection accuracy could be achieved.     

Probability of the presence of damage estimated from an active sensor network in a composite panel of multiple stiffeners

Artificial damage in the form of a through-thickness hole in a composite panel of five stiffeners is identified using a guided wave-based damage diagnostic algorithm, which is based on the probability of the presence of damage in the monitoring area estimated using correlation coefficients of Lamb wave signals from an active sensor network. Without defining the detail features of individual wave components, this diagnostic algorithm focuses on the calibrated changes in wave signals due to the presence of damage. The probability of the presence of damage at each grid in the monitoring area is estimated. The area consisting of grids with probability values for the presence of damage above a threshold is subsequently identified for damage identification. The effect of networks of sensing paths and shapes of the affected zone of individual sensing paths on identifying the damage in the composite panel is investigated. The results demonstrate that the diagnostic algorithm, being computationally efficient and amenable to automated processing, can be used to identify damage in highly complex structures.     

The excitation and detection of lamb waves with planar coil electromagnetic acoustic transducers

Planar coil electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs) are investigated for the excitation and detection of Lamb waves in nonferromagnetic metallic wave-guides. Such EMATs are attractive for certain applications due to their omni-directional sensitivity to wave modes with predominantly in-plane surface displacement, such as the So Lamb wave mode. A model is developed that enables the modal content of the radiated Lamb wave field from a transmitting EMAT to be calculated, and the output voltage from a receiving EMAT to be predicted when a Lamb wave mode is incident on it. The predictions from this model are compared with experimental data obtained from 12 different EMATs tested on a 5-mm thick aluminum plate, and good agreement is obtained. The model then is used to analyze the different effects that contribute to the overall Lamb wave modal sensitivity of an EMAT. The relationship between coil geometry and wavelength is examined.     

基于Shannon 复数小波的复合材料结构时间反转聚焦多损伤成像方法

研究了一种基于压电传感器阵列和主动Lamb 波的结构损伤成像方法,有助于克服Lamb 波在板结构中、特别是在复合材料板结构中存在的频散、多种模式及模式转换的现象给结构健康监测带来的困难。分析了结构多损伤散射信号的时间反转聚焦原理,在此基础上提出了一种基于Shannon 复数小波和时间反转聚焦的信号合成成像方法。该方法中,确定Lamb 波响应信号的到达时刻是信号能够准确聚焦的关键因素之一。提出了利用Shannon 复数小波变换计算Lamb 波响应信号到达时刻的方法。在碳纤维复合材料板结构上对整套信号合成成像方法进行了验证。研究结果表明,该方法能够有效地对同一个监测区域中的多个损伤进行成像定位。相对于30 cm ×30 cm 的监测区域,定位误差不超过2 cm。该方法有助于结构健康监测技术的工程应用。