高模碳纤维细观力学分析

将碳纤维视为由微晶和无定型碳所构成的二相复合材料,以Mori-Tanaka方法研究了碳纤维微观结构对弹性模量的影响。对四种高模碳纤维M35JB、M40JB、M46JB及M55JB的微观量进行了测量。微晶的长细比由XRD实验测得,碳纤维石墨化程度由拉曼光谱分析得到。影响碳纤维弹性模量的因素包括:微晶的长细比、体积分数及取向度。通过计算细观力学模型得到了四种高模碳纤维的微晶体积分数。研究发现:碳纤维石墨化程度越高,微晶体积分数越大。碳纤维弹性模量随着微晶取向度、体积分数和长细比的增加而增加,且对这三种因素做了比较,微晶取向度和体积分数对弹性模量的影响高于微晶长细比对弹性模量的影响,只有当微晶取向度接近100%时,其对弹性模量的影响才有可能被微晶长细比超越。微晶取向度和体积分数增加的最初阶段,取向度对弹性模量的影响较大,随着两影响因素的增加,取向度对弹性模量的影响最终被体积分数超越。     

Single fibre deformation studies of poly(p-phenylene benzobisoxazole) fibres

Changes in crystal strain and crystallite orientation of three varieties of PBO fibre (namely PBO AS, HM and HM+) have been investigated during deformation from the analysis of diffraction patterns obtained across single filaments, using a synchrotron X-ray source. Crystal strain was measured from the positions of the meridional reflections and orientation calculated from azimuthal broadening of the equatorial reflections. It has been demonstrated that no difference in crystal strain across the fibre exists, with the calculated strain being equal between fibre skin and core at a given level of stress. Further skin-core crystallite orientation analysis (calculation of the orientation parameter ) proved that the AS fibre was the only PBO variety with a significant difference in orientation across the fibre, with the core region being less oriented due to the processing conditions. The skin and core orientation of all three fibres was found to improve with deformation, with the core of the AS fibre showing a significantly higher rate of improvement. This resulted in a similar level of orientation for both skin and core regions of the PBO AS fibre at high levels of stress. The fibre modulus was found to increase with the increasing initial degree of crystallite orientation. Furthermore, improvement in orientation with external stress was related to _{= 0}, with higher values resulting in greater shear forces on the crystallites and therefore a greater rate of orientation improvement.     

Modifications of Surface Integrity during the Cutting of Copper

The required extreme surface quality of metallic parts made necessary investigation of different features of surface formed crystallites in polycrystalline materials. Every surface crystallite has different crystal plane orientation, so its reaction to the machine tool during cutting differs from that of other crystallites. These differences are reflected in the features of surface finish, especially when the surface is mirror like. The reason is that orientation of the crystallite determines the plastic and elastic deformation both of the machined surface and the chip. Elastic deformation perpendicular to the surface depends on the perpendicular compressive stress caused by the tool and Young's modulus, perpendicular to surface. After the passage of the tool, the elastic deformation disappears and its former values result in different levels of crystallite surfaces. Differences are determined by the orientation dependence of the Young's modulus. The ratio of highest to lowest modulus for copper is about 3, whereas for tungsten it is 1. The most important features of crystal structure and the reasons that cause deviations in surface finish in the machining of copper are reported.     

Crystal morphology in pristine and doped films of poly (p-phenylene vinylene)

The crystal morphology of oriented films of poly (p-phenylene vinylene) (PPV) has been investigated using electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. An X-ray diffraction rotation series confirmed the existence of fibre symmetry in bulk oriented films. Dark-field imaging by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed small diffracting regions of the order of 7 nm in size with an aspect ratio near 1. These diffracting regions were shown by high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HREM) to be composed of small crystallites with an average size of 5 nm. Imaging of the lateral packing by HREM allowed the evaluation of local variations in crystallite orientation. This HREM method of orientation function determination compares well to bulk methods (e.g. wide-angle X-ray scattering, infrared dichroism) for PPV of similar draw ratio. A micellar model is presented to describe the crystalline morphology of oriented PPV. The model presents PPV as a highly connected network of small crystallites. The well-formed crystalline regions are thought to compose approximately 50% of the sample volume with the remainder of the volume being grain boundaries. Doping by AsF₅ led to the formation of an electron-dense overlayer, thought to be arsenic oxide, which prohibited darkfield imaging of the crystallites. After doping with H₂SO₄, crystallites of the electrically conductive phase were observed. The general morphological character is preserved in the conversion from insulating to conducting forms. For the conditions employed, the doped diffracting regions were 4 nm in size and retained the orientation initially present in the pristine film.     

PAN基碳纤维微晶结构对拉伸强度的影响

碳纤维由微晶和非晶碳所构成。利用X射线衍射(XRD)和拉曼光谱(Raman)研究聚丙烯腈(PAN)基碳纤维微晶结构对拉伸强度的影响机理。结晶度、石墨化程度、微晶无序化程度、微晶尺寸都对拉伸强度有显著影响。结晶度、石墨化程度越大,微晶无序化程度越小拉伸强度越大。微晶尺寸越大拉伸强度越小。比较T300和T700,结晶度、石墨化程度的增加,微晶无序化程度的减小所导致的拉伸强度增量大于微晶尺寸增加所导致的拉伸强度减小量,从而使得T700的拉伸强度大于T300的拉伸强度,同理可知T800的拉伸强度大于T700的拉伸强度。比较M35J和M40J,结晶度、石墨化程度的增加,微晶无序化程度的减小所导致的拉伸强度增量小于微晶尺寸增加所导致的拉伸强度减小量,从而使得M40J的拉伸强度小于M35J的拉伸强度,同理可知M46J的拉伸强度小于M40J的拉伸强度。M35J,M40J和M46J内的较大的微晶对拉伸强度的影响起决定性作用。     

Impact of fibre orientation on tensile,bending and shear behaviors of a steel fibre reinforced concrete

Fibre orientation and density are known to have a significant influence on steel fibre reinforced concretes (SFRC) mechanical properties. In practice, parameters such as fresh state properties, restriction to concrete flowability and placing methods are likely to induce different fibre orientations in characterisation specimens and structural components. This difference in fibre orientation can impact the mechanical behavior of the structural component and therefore provide an unsafe design if not considered. This project consisted to produce a large SFRC slab, extract specimens with different fibre orientations, and submit specimens to tensile, bending and shear tests to evaluate the impact of fibre orientation and density on mechanical and post-peak strengths. Test results have shown that tensile and bending behaviors are mainly influenced by the fibre orientation, while the shear behavior is mainly impacted by fibre density. Test results were processed to allow comparison between tensile and bending tests. Linear correlations between tensile residual stresses and fibre orientation where found, linear or power type correlations according to bending residual stresses, as well as linear correlations between shear stresses and fibre density.     

X-ray measurements and the structure of polyacrylonitrile- and pitch-based carbon fibres

X-ray measurements were carried out on polyacrylonitrile- and pitch-based carbon fibres. The crystallites, disordered regions and microvoids in these carbon fibres were evaluated quantitatively by applying the methods previously proposed by the present authors. The structural parameters evaluated are the 1 1 plane spacing of the carbon layer, the average, standard deviation and asymmetry of the distribution of interlayer spacing, the stacking regularity parallel to the layer plane, the layer extents parallel and perpendicular to the fibre axis, the stacking height, the crystallite orientation, the volume fractions of crystallites, disordered regions and microvoids, the variation of the electron density in a microvoid, and the size parameters of the void cross-section perpendicular to the fibre axis, such as the area, radius of gyration, chord length and thickness. The mutual relationships of these structural parameters are presented, and parameters sensitive to the nature of the starting materials are pointed out.     

Pitch-based carbon fibres derived from thermoset fibres oxidized with Cl2 containing air

Mesophase pitch-based carbon fibres thermoset with Cl₂ containing air were studied for their microstructures and physical properties. Carbon fibres thermoset with Cl₂ containing air and heat-treated at 2000C (Cl₂2000) possessed slightly smaller mean sizes of crystallites L _c(0 0 2)s, lower densities, lower tensile moduli of elasticity, and higher tensile strengths than those thermoset with air. X-ray diffraction measurements revealed a somewhat lower degree of preferred orientation of a carbon fibre which was thermoset with Cl₂ containing air. The Cl₂ thermosetting partly disordered the periodic arrangement of crystallites and reduced the crystallite size L _c(0 0 2) of a carbon fibre heat-treated at a lower temperature. A strong temperature dependence of resistivity was shown for Cl₂800, suggesting much disorder in its microstructure due to the Cl₂ thermosetting, and Cl₂1000 and Cl₂1200, respectively showed specific temperature dependencies of resistivities.     

Distribution of hydroxyapatite crystallite orientation and ultrasonic wave velocity in ring-shaped cortical bone of bovine femur

At the nanoscopic level, bone consists of calcium phosphate, which forms incomplete hydroxyapatite (HAp) crystals. The preferred orientation of the c-axis of HAp crystallites induces anisotropy and inhomogeneity of elastic properties in bone. In this study, the effect of the preferred orientation of HAp crystallites on the spatial distribution of ultrasonic wave velocity was experimentally investigated, considering bone mineral density (BMD) and microstructure. Three ring-shaped cortical bone samples were made from a 36-month-old bovine femur. Longitudinal wave velocity was measured by a conventional ultrasonic pulse system, using self-made polyvinylidene fluoride transducers. The integrated intensity of the (0002) peak obtained using X-ray diffraction was estimated to evaluate the amount of preferred orientation. The velocity distribution pattern was similar to the distribution of integrated intensity of (0002). The effect of the preferred orientation of HAp crystallites on velocity was clearly observed in the plexiform structure, despite the fact that the BMD value was almost independent of the preferred orientation of HAp crystallites. Velocity measurement of cortical bone can reveal information about HAp crystallite orientation.     

Change of mosaic block size of bulk polyethylene in drawing processes

The effects of draw ratio and drawing temperature on the lattice distortion and size of mosaic block crystals during the deformation process of lamellar crystals were investigated by X-rays for bulk crystallized polyethylene samples with different thermal histories: a sample slowly cooled from the melt, a quenched sample, and an annealed sample. With a small draw ratio, the mosaic block sizes were reflected in the thermal histories of the starting samples, but they decreased rapidly on further drawing and became almost constant in the highly drawn state, being independent of the original values. However, during the drawing process, the distortion parameters did not undergo such a large change as the crystallite size. Increase in the drawing temperature resulted in an increase in crystallite size. Based on the remarkable decrease in crystallite size upon drawing, a hypothesis to explain the formation of fibre structure was proposed.     

Dependence of the acoustoelastic properties and texture of an orthorhombic polycrystalline aggregate on stress

Summary The propagation of ultrasonic plane waves in a solid bulk sample is considered for the case when the sample material is of the form of a polycrystalline aggregate (e.g., steel) made of crystallites of the highest cubic symmetry. The crystallite orientation disitribution is assumed to be such that it implies the orthorhombic symmetry of the macroscopic (effective) acoustoelastic properties of the polycrystalline aggregate. Moreover, the sample is assumed to be subjected to an increasing stress, the principal directions of the stress being coincident with the axes of the orthorhombic symmetry of the bulk sample. It is assumed that the ultrasonic waves also propagate and are linearly polarized in the directions coincident with the axes of the orthorhombic symmetry. The Voigt's averaging procedure and Jaynes' principle of maximum Shannon entropy are accepted as a reliable basis for the evaluation of the influence of the changes in stress on both the effective acoustoelastic properties of the polycrystalline aggregate and the probability density function of the crystallite orientation in the sample. In this way, an algorithm is prepared which enables us to evaluate numerically these effects under the assumption that the single-crystallite elastic moduli are constant. Some results obtained by using this algorithm are presented for the case of a plane increasing stress. An erratum to this article can be found at     

The influence of the lateral filament texture on the compressive properties of PpPTA aramid filaments

A series of PpPTA aramid fibres with various degree of lateral orientation ranging from their usual radial-oriented lateral texture to a full random lateral texture were prepared by employing a series of different coagulating media in the fibre spinning process. The resulting variation in lateral texture did not lead to differences in linear tensile properties or crystallite dimensions. Raman spectroscopy measurements on embedded axially compressed filaments showed that the stresses for kink band initiation and propagation were independent of the degree of lateral texture. The kink band morphology and the final kink band density upon further straining were found to correlate with the shear modulus derived from combined mechanical and XRD data.     

Characterization of microvoids in polyacrylonitrile-based carbon fibres

The microvoids in PAN-based carbon fibres covering a wide range of crystallite size were measured by the method using small-angle X-ray scattering on fibre bundles, and the fractional content of voids and the parameters representing the cross-sectional size of voids perpendicular to the fibre axis were determined. The variation in the shape and size distribution of voids with crystallite thickness was considered by introducing an elliptical crosssection model and a cross-sectional size distribution model. The electron density distribution in the inside of a void was also considered. It is concluded that the electron density difference between a void and the solid surrounding the void is relatively larger in the periphery than in the inner part of a void, and that the electron density in the inner part of a void decreases with increasing crystallite thickness.     

Microtexture and structure of boron nitride fibres by transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, photoelectron spectroscopy and Raman scattering

Continuous boron nitride fibres have been fabricated by melt spinning and pyrolysis of poly[2,4,6-tris(methylamino)borazine]. The longitudinal mechanical properties depend on mechanical stress and temperature applied during the conversion process. High-performance and low-performance fibres were characterized in order to find relationship between structure and physical properties. In all the cases, photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis proves that the chemical composition of the fibre is close to stoichiometric BN. The crystallite sizes were measured by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman techniques. Cross-sections of separated fibres were investigated by high-resolution electron microscopy (HREM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). All the BN fibres have a hexagonal turbostratic structure. With increasing stress and temperature, the tensile strength and the elastic modulus increase. In the high-performance fibres, the 002 layers with an increased distance (about 0.35 nm) showed a mean stacking sequence near to graphite and a preferred orientation of the 002 layers parallel to the fibre axis.     

The effect of fibre orientation on the interfacial shear stress in short fibre-reinforced polypropylene

Two methods for the determination of interfacial shear stress and the orientation effects in well aligned short fibre-reinforced polypropylene specimens subjected to uniaxial tension have been discussed. Both methods are based on the stress-transfer model due to Kelly and Tyson, but the orientation effects are taken into account by different procedures. In the first procedure the stress and strain along the load axis are considered and the orientation factor is found to be close to cos⁴ for 45°. In the second procedure the fibre orientation is taken into account by resolving stress and strain in the fibre axis direction. The transverse strain is also considered with the help of experimentally determined values of Poisson's ratio. The second procedure was found to be very satisfactory and it also confirms the assumption of linear dependence of interfacial stress on the tensile stress in the fibre direction, as postulated in an earlier study, for all orientations.     

Micromechanical modelling for wood–fibre reinforced plastics in which the fibres are neither stiff nor rod-like

Plant fibres distort to curved or kinked shapes during injection moulding, while glass fibres are relatively stiff and remain rod-like. The consequences of these differences were investigated for an example of wood fibre prepared by thermomechanical pulping to reinforce polypropylene in tensile test specimens. Krenchel’s orientation factor increased with distance from the gate, reaching values similar to those published for glass-reinforced plastic. Halpin–Tsai and Mori–Tanaka micromechanical models predicted the tensile modulus within ±7% at low strain, despite implicit and incorrect assumptions of rod-like shape. Both models assumed elastic reinforcement with perfect fibre–matrix bonding, and therefore overestimated the tensile stress at higher strains.     

Mechanical enhancement of cement-stabilized soil by flax fibre reinforcement and extrusion processing

Cement-based materials typically exhibit low tensile strength and their behaviour is generally brittle. Fibres can be added to make composites with enhanced tensile response and toughness. This study focuses on the effects of flax fibre content, mix design and processing on the hardened product properties (density, fibre orientation, surface quality, compressive and tensile strength). Effects of fibre addition on the mechanical performance of cast and extruded flax fibre reinforced composites are compared. Microstructure observations are used to study the influence of processing on fibre–matrix bond, fibre dispersion and fibre orientation. Flax fibre dispersion and orientation are also investigated to understand their effect on mechanical behaviour. In the case of cast materials, fibres do not significantly improve the mechanical behaviour. In contrast, improvement of fibre dispersion and fibre/matrix bond quality due to an extrusion process enhances mechanical performance.     

Mechanical analysis of bi-component-fibre nonwovens: Finite-element strategy

In thermally bonded bi-component fibre nonwovens, a significant contribution is made by bond points in defining their mechanical behaviour formed as a result of their manufacture. Bond points are composite regions with a sheath material reinforced by a network of fibres’ cores. These composite regions are connected by bi-component fibres — a discontinuous domain of the material. Microstructural and mechanical characterization of this material was carried out with experimental and numerical modelling techniques. Two numerical modelling strategies were implemented: (i) traditional finite element (FE) and (ii) a new parametric discrete phase FE model to elucidate the mechanical behaviour and underlying mechanisms involved in deformation of these materials. In FE models the studied nonwoven material was treated as an assembly of two regions having distinct microstructure and mechanical properties: fibre matrix and bond points. The former is composed of randomly oriented core/sheath fibres acting as load-transfer link between composite bond points. Randomness of material’s microstructure was introduced in terms of orientation distribution function (ODF). The ODF was obtained by analysing the data acquired with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray micro computed tomography (CT). Bond points were treated as a deformable two-phase composite. An in-house algorithm was used to calculate anisotropic material properties of composite bond points based on properties of constituent fibres and manufacturing parameters such as the planar density, core/sheath ratio and fibre diameter. Individual fibres connecting the composite bond points were modelled in the discrete phase model directly according to their orientation distribution. The developed models were validated by comparing numerical results with experimental tensile test data, demonstrating that the proposed approach is highly suitable for prediction of complex deformation mechanisms, mechanical performance and structure-properties relationships of composites.     

Silicon carbide (NicalonTM) fibre-reinforced borosilicate glass composites: mechanical properties

The objective of this study was to assess the applicability of an extrinsic carbon coating to tailor the interface in a unidirectional NicalonTM–borosilicate glass composite for maximum strength. Three unidirectional NicalonTM fibre-reinforced borosilicate glass composites were fabricated with different interfaces by using (1) uncoated (2) 25 nm thick carbon-coated and (3) 140 nm thick carbon coated Nicalon fibres. The tensile behaviours of the three systems differed significantly. Damage developments during tensile loading were recorded by a replica technique. Fibre–matrix interfacial frictional stresses were measured. A shear lag model was used to quantitatively relate the interfacial properties, damage and elastic modulus. Tensile specimen design was varied to obtain desirable failure mode. Tensile strengths of NicalonTM fibres in all three types of composites were measured by the fracture mirror method. Weibull analysis of the fibre strength data was performed. Fibre strength data obtained from the fracture mirror method were compared with strength data obtained by single fibre tensile testing of as-received fibres and fibres extracted from the composites. The fibre strength data were used in various composite strength models to predict strengths. Nicalon–borosilicate glass composites with ultimate tensile strength values as high as 585 MPa were produced using extrinsic carbon coatings on the fibres. Fibre strength measurements indicated fibre strength degradation during processing. Fracture mirror analysis gave higher fibre strengths than extracted single fibre tensile testing for all three types of composites. The fibre bundle model gave reasonable composite ultimate tensile strength predictions using fracture mirror based fibre strength data. Characterization and analysis suggest that the full reinforcing potential of the fibres was not realized and the composite strength can be further increased by optimizing the fibre coating thickness and processing parameters. The use of microcrack density measurements, indentation–frictional stress measurements and shear lag modelling have been demonstrated for assessing whether the full reinforcing and toughening potential of the fibres has been realized. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The adiabatic fracture of thermoplastic fibres

The development of methods for measuring true stresses and strains in thermoplastics and of models for representing the results, makes it possible to predict polymer performance in a number of ways. Recently this method was used to study the stability of the tensile deformation of high-density polyethylene under adiabatic conditions. It was proposed that at high strain rates, thermomechanical softening would render the plastic deformation process unstable, promoting localised deformation and fracture. In this paper, the isothermal extension process measured at different temperatures is assumed to be stopped and then restarted after different draw ratios have been attained, as in the drawing of a fibre. In this way the effect of draw ratio on fibre tensile properties can then be predicted. It is shown that, with fast deformation under adiabatic conditions, the softening effect due to the increase in temperature exceeds the opposing influence of strain hardening so that the nominal stress is predicted to fall continuously with increased strain. This leads to a ductile fracture process, which, in a fibre, can generate mushroom shaped blobs of polymer at the broken ends. This effect has previously been reported by Hearle and co-workers. The applicability of the model to different type of fibre is considered.