Reactive Oxygen‐Doped 3D Interdigital Carbonaceous Materials for Li and Na Ion Batteries

Carbonaceous materials as anodes usually exhibit low capacity for lithium ion batteries (LIBs) and sodium ion batteries (SIBs). Oxygen‐doped carbonaceous materials have the potential of high capacity and super rate performance. However, up to now, the reported oxygen‐doped carbonaceous materials usually exhibit inferior electrochemical performance. To overcome this problem, a high reactive oxygen‐doped 3D interdigital porous carbonaceous material is designed and synthesized through epitaxial growth method and used as anodes for LIBs and SIBs. It delivers high reversible capacity, super rate performance, and long cycling stability (473 mA h g^?1after 500 cycles for LIBs and 223 mA h g^?1 after 1200 cycles for SIBs, respectively, at the current density of 1000 mA g^?1), with a capacity decay of 0.0214% per cycle for LIBs and 0.0155% per cycle for SIBs. The results demonstrate that constructing 3D interdigital porous structure with reactive oxygen functional groups can significantly enhance the electrochemical performance of oxygen‐doped carbonaceous material.     

Understanding of the capacity contribution of carbon in phosphorus-carbon composites for high-performance anodes in lithium ion batteries

Phosphorus has recently received extensive attention as a promising anode for lithium ion batteries (LIBs) due to its high theoretical capacity of 2,596 mAh·g-1.To develop high-performance phosphorus anodes for LIBs,carbon materials have been hybridized with phosphorus (P-C) to improve dispersion and conductivity.However,the specific capacity,rate capability,and cycling stability of P-C anodes are still less than satisfactory for practical applications.Furthermore,the exact effects of the carbon support on the electrochemical performance of the P-C anodes are not fully understood.Herein,a series of xP-yC anode materials for LIBs were prepared by a simple and efficient ball-milling method.6P-4C and 3P-7C were found to be optimum mass ratios of x/y,and delivered initial discharge capacities of 1,803.5 and 1,585.3.mAh.g-1,respectively,at 0.1 C in the voltage range 0.02-2 V,with an initial capacity retention of 68.3％ over 200 cycles (more than 4 months cycling life) and 40.8％ over 450 cycles.The excellent electrochemical performance of the 6P-4C and 3P-7C samples was attributed to a synergistic effect from both the adsorbed P and carbon.     

基于海藻酸钠交联的NiO/C复合材料制备及其储锂性能

NiO作为过渡金属氧化物代表,具有能量密度较高、成本低的优点,在锂离子电池负极材料的应用中引起了广泛关注。通过海藻酸钠与金属离子的自主交联反应,以及碳化、氧化过程,制备了低成本的多孔纳米NiO/C复合材料。得到的复合材料中,NiO纳米颗粒分散均匀且被石墨化碳层包覆,并嵌入多孔相互连通的碳基体中,在提升复合材料整体导电性的同时抑制了活性材料在电化学反应中的体积膨胀。将其用作锂离子电池负极材料时,NiO/C复合材料在0.1,1 A/g的电流密度下分别具有608.2,307.2 mAh/g的比容量,并且在0.1 A/g电流密度下经过100圈循环后仍保持448 mAh/g的比容量,显示出优良的循环稳定性。优良的电化学性能充分显示出NiO/C复合材料在锂离子电池负极材料中的应用潜能。     

A Flexible Sulfur‐Enriched Nitrogen Doped Multichannel Hollow Carbon Nanofibers Film for High Performance Sodium Storage

Heteroatom doping is regarded as a promising method to enhance the sodium storage performance of carbon materials. In this work, a sulfur‐enriched N‐doped multichannel hollow carbon nanofiber (denoted as S‐NCNF) film is prepared through electrospinning technology and heat treatment with sublimed sulfur as the flexible anode for sodium ion batteries (NIBs). The S‐NCNF film displays outstanding electrochemical performance, particularly with a high rate capacity (132 mA h g^?1 at the current density of 10 A g^?1) and remarkable long cycling stability (reversible specific capacity of 187 mA h g^?1 at 2 A g^?1 over 2000 cycles). The improved sodium storage performance results from the unique 3D structure, abundant defects, and increased interlayer spacing of S‐NCNFs. The density functional theory calculations demonstrate that nitrogenous carbon nanofibers doping with sulfur could not only promote the adsorption of sodium but also favor electrons' transfer. This strategy has been demonstrated as a general process to design free‐standing carbon‐based thin film with other heteroatom doping.     

N‐Doped Carbon Nanofibers with Interweaved Nanochannels for High‐Performance Sodium‐Ion Storage

Although graphite materials have been applied as commercial anodes in lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs), there still remain abundant spaces in the development of carbon‐based anode materials for sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs). Herein, an electrospinning route is reported to fabricate nitrogen‐doped carbon nanofibers with interweaved nanochannels (NCNFs‐IWNC) that contain robust interconnected 1D porous channels, produced by removal of a Te nanowire template that is coelectrospun within carbon nanofibers during the electrospinning process. The NCNFs‐IWNC features favorable properties, including a conductive 1D interconnected porous structure, a large specific surface area, expanded interlayer graphite‐like spacing, enriched N‐doped defects and active sites, toward rapid access and transport of electrolyte and electron/sodium ions. Systematic electrochemical studies indicate that the NCNFs‐IWNC exhibits an impressively high rate capability, delivering a capacity of 148 mA h g^?1 at current density of as high as 10 A g^?1, and has an attractively stable performance over 5000 cycles. The practical application of the as‐designed NCNFs‐IWNC for a full SIBs cell is further verified by coupling the NCNFs‐IWNC anode with a FeFe(CN)₆ cathode, which displays a desirable cycle performance, maintaining acapacity of 97 mA h g^?1 over 100 cycles.     

Molten salts for rechargeable batteries

The growing demand of advanced electrochemical energy storage devices for various applications, including portable electronic products, electric vehicles, and large-scale energy storage grids, has triggered extensive research interests and efforts on various rechargeable batteries such as lithium/sodium-ion batteries (LIBs/NIBs), aluminium-ion batteries (AIBs), liquid metal batteries (LMBs), and molten-air batteries (MABs) in the past decades. A key issue to push forward the development of these batteries is the exploration of high-performance electrodes and electrolytes, which calls for efficient and versatile synthetic methods. Molten salts (MSs), liquid-phase ionic compounds or mixtures, provide an effective platform to widen the reaction temperatures and enrich the chemical environments for the synthesis of novel electrode materials and electrolytes. In this review, the general principles of molten salts and recent research progresses on molten salt-based battery materials are surveyed. Molten-salt synthesis of electrode materials, including sintering and electrolysis, are emerging as competitive substitutes for conventional synthesis techniques. These methods have shown their effectiveness and uniqueness in adjusting the crystal structure, morphology, and performance of electrode materials for LIBs/NIBs, as suggested by recent progresses and applications of diverse cathodes (layered oxides, spinel oxides, polyanions, etc.) and anodes (metal oxides, alloys, carbons, etc.). Furthermore, the applications of molten salts as effective electrolytes are demonstrated in representative new-type secondary batteries including AIBs, LMBs and MABs. Finally, the emerging opportunities, challenges, and interesting research trends are envisioned to promote the further development of molten-salt methodology for rechargeable batteries.     

S‐Doped Carbon Fibers Uniformly Embedded with Ultrasmall TiO2 for Na+/Li+ Storage with High Capacity and Long‐Time Stability

Building a rechargeable battery with high capacity, high energy density, and long lifetime contributes to the development of novel energy storage devices in the future. Although carbon materials are very attractive anode materials for lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs), they present several deficiencies when used in sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs). The choice of an appropriate structural design and heteroatom doping are critical steps to improve the capacity and stability. Here, carbon‐based nanofibers are produced by sulfur doping and via the introduction of ultrasmall TiO₂ nanoparticles into the carbon fibers (CNF‐S@TiO₂). It is discovered that the introduction of TiO₂ into carbon nanofibers can significantly improve the specific surface area and microporous volume for carbon materials. The TiO₂ content is controlled to obtain CNF‐S@TiO₂‐5 to use as the anode material for SIBs/LIBs with enhanced electrochemical performance in Na⁺/Li⁺ storage. During the charge/discharge process, the S‐doping and the incorporation of TiO₂ nanoparticles into carbon fibers promote the insertion/extraction of the ions and enhance the capacity and cycle life. The capacity of CNF‐S@TiO₂‐5 can be maintained at ≈300 mAh g^?1 over 600 cycles at 2 A g^?1 in SIBs. Moreover, the capacity retention of such devices is 94%, showing high capacity and good stability.     

Porous Carbon Nanofibers Encapsulated with Peapod‐Like Hematite Nanoparticles for High‐Rate and Long‐Life Battery Anodes

Fe₂O₃ is regarded as a promising anode material for lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) and sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs) due to its high specific capacity. The large volume change during discharge and charge processes, however, induces significant cracking of the Fe₂O₃ anodes, leading to rapid fading of the capacity. Herein, a novel peapod‐like nanostructured material, consisting of Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles homogeneously encapsulated in the hollow interior of N‐doped porous carbon nanofibers, as a high‐performance anode material is reported. The distinctive structure not only provides enough voids to accommodate the volume expansion of the pea‐like Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles but also offers a continuous conducting framework for electron transport and accessible nanoporous channels for fast diffusion and transport of Li/Na‐ions. As a consequence, this peapod‐like structure exhibits a stable discharge capacity of 1434 mAh g^?1 (at 100 mA g^?1) and 806 mAh g^?1 (at 200 mA g^?1) over 100 cycles as anode materials for LIBs and SIBs, respectively. More importantly, a stable capacity of 958 mAh g^?1 after 1000 cycles and 396 mAh g^?1 after 1500 cycles can be achieved for LIBs and SIBs, respectively, at a large current density of 2000 mA g^?1. This study provides a promising strategy for developing long‐cycle‐life LIBs and SIBs.     

Nitrogen‐Enriched Carbon/CNT Composites Based on Schiff‐Base Networks: Ultrahigh N Content and Enhanced Lithium Storage Properties

To improve the electrochemical performance of carbonaceous anodes for lithium ion batteries (LIBs), the incorporation of both well‐defined heteroatom species and the controllable 3D porous networks are urgently required. In this work, a novel N‐enriched carbon/carbon nanotube composite (NEC/CNT) through a chemically induced precursor‐controlled pyrolysis approach is developed. Instead of conventional N‐containing sources or precursors, Schiff‐base network (SNW‐1) enables the desirable combination of a 3D polymer with intrinsic microporosity and ultrahigh N‐content, which can significantly promote the fast transport of both Li⁺ and electron. Significantly, the strong interaction between carbon skeleton and nitrogen atoms enables the retention of ultrahigh N‐content up to 21 wt% in the resultant NEC/CNT, which exhibits a super‐high capacity (1050 mAh g^?1) for 1000 cycles and excellent rate performance (500 mAh g^?1 at a current density of 5 A g^?1) as the anode material for LIBs. The NEC/CNT composite affords a new model system as well as a totally different insight for deeply understanding the relationship between chemical structures and lithium ion storage properties, in which chemistry may play a more important role than previously expected.     

SnO2‐Based Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Application in Lithium‐Ion Batteries

The development of new electrode materials for lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) has always been a focal area of materials science, as the current technology may not be able to meet the high energy demands for electronic devices with better performance. Among all the metal oxides, tin dioxide (SnO₂) is regarded as a promising candidate to serve as the anode material for LIBs due to its high theoretical capacity. Here, a thorough survey is provided of the synthesis of SnO₂‐based nanomaterials with various structures and chemical compositions, and their application as negative electrodes for LIBs. It covers SnO₂ with different morphologies ranging from 1D nanorods/nanowires/nanotubes, to 2D nanosheets, to 3D hollow nanostructures. Nanocomposites consisting of SnO₂ and different carbonaceous supports, e.g., amorphous carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, are also investigated. The use of Sn‐based nanomaterials as the anode material for LIBs will be briefly discussed as well. The aim of this review is to provide an in‐depth and rational understanding such that the electrochemical properties of SnO₂‐based anodes can be effectively enhanced by making proper nanostructures with optimized chemical composition. By focusing on SnO₂, the hope is that such concepts and strategies can be extended to other potential metal oxides, such as titanium dioxide or iron oxides, thus shedding some light on the future development of high‐performance metal‐oxide based negative electrodes for LIBs.     

3D Printing of Customized Li‐Ion Batteries with Thick Electrodes

The growing demand for rechargeable lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) with higher capacity in customized geometries underscores the need for new battery materials, architectures, and assembly strategies. Here, the design, fabrication, and electrochemical performance of fully 3D printed LIBs composed of thick semisolid electrodes that exhibit high areal capacity are reported. Specifically, semisolid cathode and anode inks, as well as UV curable packaging and separator inks for direct writing of LIBs in arbitrary geometries are created. These fully 3D printed and packaged LIBs, which are encased between two glassy carbon current collectors, deliver an areal capacity of 4.45 mAh cm^?2 at a current density of 0.14 mA cm^?2, which is equivalent to 17.3 Ah L^?1. The ability to produce high‐performance LIBs in customized form factors opens new avenues for integrating batteries directly within 3D printed objects.     

Nickel embedded porous macrocellular carbon derived from popcorn as sulfur host for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries

Due to the demands for high performance and ecological and economical alternatives to conventional lithium-ion batteries (LiBs),the development of lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries with remarkably higher theoretical capacity (1675 mA h g-1) has become one of the extensive research focus directions world-wide.However,poor conductivity of sulfur,critical cyclability problems due to shuttle of polysulfides as intermediate products of the cathodic reaction,and large volume variation of the sulfur composite cathode upon operation are the major bottlenecks impeding the implementation of the next-generation Li-S batteries.In this work,a unique three-dimensional (3D) interconnected macrocellular porous carbon (PC) architecture decorated with metal Ni nanopatticles was synthesized by a simple and facile strategy.The as-fabricated Ni/PC composite combines the merits of conducting carbon skeleton and highly adsorptive abilities of Ni,which resulted in efficient trapping of lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) and their fast conversion in the electrochemical process.Owing to these synergistic advantageous features,the composite exhibited good cycling stability (512.3 mA h g-1 after 1000 cycles at 1 C with an extremely low capacity fading rate 0.03 ％ per cycle),and superior rate capability (747.5 mAh g-1 at 2 C).Accordingly,such Ni nanoparticles embedded in a renewable puffed corn-derived carbon prepared via a simple and effective route represent a promising active type of sulfur host matrix to fabricate high-performance Li-S batteries.     

A facile self-catalyzed CVD method to synthesize Fe_3C/N-doped carbon nanofibers as lithium storage anode with improved rate capability and cyclability

Uniform Fe3 C/N-doped carbon nanofibers were successfully synthesized through a facile self-catalyzed CVD method by using acetylene as carbon source and Fe_3O_4 as iron source and autocatalytic template for the reaction under moderate preparation conditions. The experimental and theoretical calculation results demonstrate that Fe3 C can improve the lithium storage performance of carbon nanofibers. Besides, the addition of PPy can not only control the growth rate of carbon fibers but also help to form uniform carbon fibers. As a result, the obtained Fe3 C/N-doped carbon nanofiber composites display favorable electrochemical performance as an anode for lithium-ion batteries, which including satisfactory rate performance of 402 m A h g-1 under 1.2 Ag~(-1), and good cycling stability of 502.3 m A h g-1 under 200 m Ag~(-1) over 400 cycles. The introduction of Fe3 C species and the uniform carbon fiber morphology are responsible for the long-cycling and high rate performance of materials.     

Interface-modulated fabrication of hierarchical yolk–shell Co<Subscript>3</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript>/C dodecahedrons as stable anodes for lithium and sodium storage

Transition-metal oxides (TMOs) have gradually attracted attention from researchers as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) because of their high theoretical capacity.However,their poor cycling stability and inferior rate capability resulting from the large volume variation during the lithiation/sodiation process and their low intrinsic electronic conductivity limit their applications.To solve the problems of TMOs,carbon-based metal-oxide composites with complex structures derived from metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as promising electrode materials for LIBs and SIBs.In this study,we adopted a facile interface-modulated method to synthesize yolk-shell carbon-based Co3O4 dodecahedrons derived from ZIF-67 zeolitic imidazolate frameworks.This strategy is based on the interface separation between the ZIF-67 core and the carbon-based shell during the pyrolysis process.The unique yolk-shell structure effectively accommodates the volume expansion during lithiation or sodiation,and the carbon matrix improves the electrical conductivity of the electrode.As an anode for LIBs,the yolk-shell Co3O4/C dodecahedrons exhibit a high specific capacity and excellent cycling stability (1,100 mAh·g-1 after 120 cycles at 200 mA·g-1).As an anode for SIBs,the composites exhibit an outstanding rate capability (307 mAh·g-1 at 1,000 mA·g-1 and 269 mAh·g-1 at 2,000 mA·g-1).Detailed electrochemical kinetic analysis indicates that the energy storage for Li+ and Na+ in yolk-shell Co3O4/C dodecahedrons shows a dominant capacitive behavior.This work introduces an effective approach for fabricating carbonbased metal-oxide composites by using MOFs as ideal precursors and as electrode materials to enhance the electrochemical performance of LIBs and SIBs.     

Construction of the Fast Potassiation Path in SbxBi1-x@NC Anode with Ultrahigh Cycling Stability for Potassium-Ion Batteries

Due to the scarce of lithium resources, potassium-ion batteries (PIBs) have attracted extensive attention due to their similar electrochemical properties to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and more abundant potassium resources. Even though there is considerable progress in SbBi alloy anode for LIBs and PIBs, most studies are focused on the morphology/structure tuning, while the inherent physical features of alloy composition's effect on the electrochemical performance are rarely investigated. Herein, combined the nanonization, carbon compounding, and alloying with composition regulation, the anode of nitrogen-doped carbon-coated Sb_xBi_1-x (Sb_xBi_1-x@NC) with a series of tuned chemical compositions is designed as an ideal model. The density functional theory (DFT) calculation and experimental investigation results show that the K⁺ diffusion barrier is lower and the path is easier to carry out when element Bi dominates the potassiation reaction, which is also the reason for better circulation. The optimized Sb_0.25Bi_0.75@NC shows an excellent cycling performance with a reversible specific capacity of 301.9 mA h g⁻¹ after 500 cycles at 0.1 A g⁻¹. Meanwhile, the charge–discharge mechanism is intuitively invetigated and analyzed by in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in detail. Such an alloy-type anode synthesis approach and in situ observation method provide an adjustable strategy for the designing and investigating of PIB anodes.     

Green and up-scalable fabrication of superior anodes for lithium storage based on biomass bacterial cellulose

An extremely facile and up-scalable approach has been proposed to disperse ferric grains onto bacterial cellulose (BC) nanofibers. The BC-induced hydrolytic deposition can be performed at room temperature without using any organic solvents, toxic reagents, or complicated apparatuses, enabling a green pathway in realizing industrialization. After carbonization, the randomly oriented carbonized BC (CBC) nanofibers transmit the electrons throughout the electrode, while the inherited reticular morphology boosts the thorough penetration of electrolyte. Moreover, the sufficient space created by interconnected CBC nanofibers is able to accommodate the volume change of the nanosized Fe₃O₄ active materials during repeated Li⁺ intercalation and deintercalation. As a result, the as-prepared Fe₃O₄/CBC composites deliver the superior electrochemical performance as the free-standing anodes in Li-ion batteries (LIBs), including the impressive reversible capacity of 702 mAh g^?1 after 400 cycles at 400 mA g^?1, decent rate capability with capacity of 437 mAh g^?1 at 2000 mA g^?1, and a long cycling lifespan up to 1000 cycles at 800 mA g^?1. This work provides a scalable and green approach to fabricate high-performance LIBs anode with the natural sustainable biomass.     

Si/C particles on graphene sheet as stable anode for lithium-ion batteries

Silicon is considered as one of the most promising anodes for Li-ion batteries (LIBs),but it is limited for commercial applications by the critical issue of large volume expansion during the lithiation.In this work,the structure of silicon/carbon (Si/C) particles on graphene sheets (Si/C-G) was obtained to solve the issue by using the void space of Si/C particles and graphene.Si/C-G material was from Si/PDA-GO that silicon particles was coated by polydopamine (PDA) and reacted with oxide graphene (GO).The Si/C-G material have good cycling performance as the stability of the structure during the lithiation/dislithiation.The Si/C-G anode materials exhibited high reversible capacity of 1910.5 mA h g-1 and 1196.1 mA h g-1 after 700 cycles at 357.9 mA g-1,and have good rate property of 507.2 mA h g-1 at high current density,showing significantly improved commercial viability of silicon electrodes in high-energy-density LIBs.     

金属铋纳米颗粒原位修饰碳纳米管促进锂均匀沉积

锂金属具有高理论比容量和低电化学电位, 是发展高能量密度电池最有吸引力的负极材料之一。然而, 锂金属负极在反复的沉积/剥离过程中, 不可避免地会出现不规则的锂枝晶生长, 这将严重影响锂金属电池的循环寿命和使用安全性。本研究发展了一种简单温和的策略, 在碳纳米管上原位修饰铋纳米颗粒, 并涂覆在商业铜箔表面用作锂金属负极的集流体。研究表明, 原位修饰的铋纳米颗粒可显著促进锂均匀沉积, 抑制锂枝晶生长, 从而提高锂金属电池的电化学性能。在电流密度为1 mA·cm^-2的条件下, 基于Bi@CNT/Cu集流体的锂铜电池循环300圈后库仑效率可稳定在98%。基于Li@Bi@CNT/Cu负极的对称电池可稳定循环1000 h。基于Bi@CNT/Cu集流体的磷酸铁锂(LFP)全电池也获得了优异的电化学性能, 在1C(170 mA·g^-1)倍率下可稳定循环700圈。本研究为抑制锂金属负极枝晶生长提供了新的思路。     

Synergistically Designed Dual Interfaces to Enhance the Electrochemical Performance of MoO2/MoS2 in Na- and Li-Ion Batteries

It is indispensable to develop and design high capacity, high rate performance, long cycling life, and low-cost electrodes materials for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). Herein, MoO₂/MoS₂/C, with dual heterogeneous interfaces, is designed to induce a built-in electric field, which has been proved by experiments and theoretical calculation can accelerate electrochemical reaction kinetics and generate interfacial interactions to strengthen structural stability. The carbon foam serves as a conductive frame to assist the movement of electrons/ions, as well as forms heterogeneous interfaces with MoO₂/MoS₂ through C S and C O bonds, maintaining structural integrity and enhancing electronic transport. Thanks to these unique characteristics, the MoO₂/MoS₂/C renders a significantly enhanced electrochemical performance (324 mAh g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ after 1000 cycles for SIB and 500 mAh g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ after 500 cycles for LIBs). The current work presents a simple, useful and cost-effective route to design high-quality electrodes via interfacial engineering.     

Electrospun carbon-tin oxide composite nanofibers for use as lithium ion battery anodes

Composite carbon-tin oxide (C-SnO(2)) nanofibers are prepared by two methods and evaluated as anodes in lithium-ion battery half cells. Such an approach complements the long cycle life of carbon with the high lithium storage capacity of tin oxide. In addition, the high surface-to-volume ratio of the nanofibers improves the accessibility for lithium intercalation as compared to graphite-based anodes, while eliminating the need for binders or conductive additives. The composite nanofibrous anodes have first discharge capacities of 788 mAh g(-1) at 50 mA g(-1) current density, which are greater than pure carbon nanofiber anodes, as well as the theoretical capacity of graphite (372 mAh g(-1)), the traditional anode material. In the first protocol to fabricate the C-SnO(2) composites, tin sulfate is directly incorporated within polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofibers by electrospinning. During a thermal treatment the tin salt is converted to tin oxide and the polymer is carbonized, yielding carbon-SnO(2) nanofibers. In the second approach, we soak the nanofiber mats in tin sulfate solutions prior to the final thermal treatment, thereby loading the outer surfaces with SnO(2) nanoparticles and raising the tin content from 1.9 to 8.6 wt %. Energy-dispersive spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction analyses confirm the formation of conversion of tin sulfate to tin oxide. Furthermore, analysis with Raman spectroscopy reveals that the additional salt soak treatment from the second fabrication approach increases in the disorder of the carbon structure, as compared to the first approach. We also discuss the performance of our C-SnO(2) compared with its theoretical capacity and other nanofiber electrode composites previously reported in the literature.